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\1M  111    PASSPORT,    I  SKI)    i;V    THE    AUTHOR    IN    HIS   TRAVELS    IX    SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

(Reduced  facsimile) 


SIBERIA 
AND  CENTRAL  ASIA 


BY 

JOHN  W.  BOOKWALTER 


ILLUSTRATED   FROM  PHOTOGRAPHS    TAKEN 
RY    THE  AUTHOR 


^ 


WiTK.*.- 


Springfield,  Ohio 
1899 


Copyright,  i8gg.  by 
JOHN  \V.  BOOKWALTER 


>H^ 


:^^ 


ti'^ 


S*'* 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  the  result  of  a  trip  through  Si- 
"beria  and  Central  Asia,  made  by  the  author  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  autumn  of  last  year.  It  con- 
sists  mostly  of  letters  written  by  him  while  on  the 
journey,  which  were  published  by  several  Western 
newspapers. 

Owing  to  the  great  and  increasing  importance 
of  the  Eastern  Question,  the  author  has  thought 
that  it  micrht  be  of  interest  to  his  friends  to  have 
these  letters  put  into  a  more  permanent  form, 
illustrated  by  many  views  taken  by  him  at  that 
time.  These  views  in  themselves  may,  perhaps, 
be  his  best  excuse  for  the  book,  as  they  give  a 
better  and  clearer  idea  of  these  oreat  regions  than 
any  words  of  his  can   convey. 

As  the  Eastern  Question  hinges  largely  upon  the 
position  of  Russia,  the  author  undertook  this  trip 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  that  country  at  short 


675844 


vi  PREFACE 

range;  and,  owing  to  exceptional  privileges  granted 
to  him,  he  has  been  led  to  think  that  the  results 
of  his  observations  there  may  serve  as  a  contribu- 
tion to  the  better  understanding  of  that  question. 
He  has,  therefore,  issued  this  book  for  private  cir- 
culation, and  asks  the  indulgence  of  his  readers 
for  a  work  thrown  off  during  the  excitement  and 
fatigue  of  a  long  journey  in  new  and  most  inter- 
esting lands. 

J.  W.  B. 

Springfield,  Ohio,  April,  1899. 


CONTENTS 

^  CHAPTER    1 

PAGE 

Trans-Siberian  railway — Its  commercial  and  political  impor- 
tance— The  effect  it  has  already  produced — Russia's  mili- 
tary strength — Napoleon's  estimate  of  Russian  soldiers — 
Probable  international  complications  to  arise  from  Russia's 
industrial  advance  eastward — Our  own  relation  thereto — 
General  features  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway — The  trains 
and  their  equipment — Travel  on  the  post-routes  of  Russia 
— Humane  law  respecting  horses I 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Russian  steppes — Their  similarity  to  the  prairies  and  plains 
of  the  United  States — The  lands  of  Russia — Geological 
division  of  the  same — The  great  Tschernoziom  lands  of 
Russia — Their  capacity  and  products — System  of  farming 
in  Russia— The  yearly  production  of  cereals — Exports  of 
same — Russian  live  stock  and  export  statistics — Manufac- 
turing and  mining  industries — Culture  of  Indian  corn — 
Population  of  Russia — Distribution  of  same — The  rural  and 
urban  population  of  Russia — Dwellings  and  other  build- 
ings in  the  villages iS 

CHAPTER   III 

Emancipation  of  the  serfs — Peasants  now  great  land-owners — 
Emancipation  rescript  of  Alexander  II.,  in  1861 — Condition 
of  the  serfs  prior  to  this  act — General  provisions  of  emanci- 


viii  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


pation  rescript — Obligatory  redemption  of  lands — Measures 
to  facilitate  same — Distribution  and  allotment  of  lands  to 
the  serfs — Division  of  serfs  into  three  categories — Effects  of 
emancipation  act — Its  tendency  to  lessen  conflict  between 
capital  and  labor — Devotion  of  the  peasant  to  his  lot  acquired 
by  this  act — An  impediment  to  emigration  to  Siberia  and 
other  distant  lands — Russia's  position  in  the  probable  clash 
of  nations — Number  of  serfs  liberated  under  the  emancipa- 
tion act — Date  of  the  proclamation — The  peaceful  accom- 
plishment of  this  great  act — Peace  rescript  of  the  present 
Czar — Is  Russia  rightly  understood  by  other  nations  ?  .     32 


CHAPTER  IV 

Stations  and  restaurants  on  Siberian  Railway — Equipment  and 
safety  of  road — Syzran    on  the  Volga  River — The  Tartar 

1  — Bridge  on  Siberian  railway  over  the  Volga  River — The 
Volga,  its  size  and  importance  as  a  highway — First  view 
of  the  Ural  Mountains — Their  height,  etc, — The  city  of 
Zlatoust — Government  works  and  mines  in  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains— Summit  of  the  Urals  —  Entrance  into  Siberia — 
Some  facts  concerning  the  Russian  Empire — Eastern  slope 
of  the  Ural  Mountains — Crop  conditions  in  the  Volga  Valley 
— A  look  ahead 43 


CHAPTER    V 

The  Asiatic  continent — A  glance  at  Siberia,  its  geography, 
physical  characteristics,  etc. — The  great  rivers  of  Siberia- 
Erroneous  impression  of  Siberia — Vast  area  of  level  land — 
No  difficulty  in  construction  of  railway  —  Similarity  of 
Western  Siberia  to  a  great  portion  of  the  United  States — 
The  error  of  Americans  respecting  trans-Missouri  River 
country — The  route  of  the  Siberian  Railway — Its  construc- 
tion   and    equipment  —  Stations    on    railway    in    Siberia — 

^    Track,  bridges,  etc. — Accumulated  grain  on  the  route  from 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Kurgan  to  Tomsk — The  necessity  for  increased  facilities 
on  Siberian  Railway — Flora  and  fauna  of  Siberia — Agri- 
cultural resources  of  Siberia — Possibilities  of  the  country    .     ']2, 


CHAPTER  VI 

Ultimate  Siberian  railway  system — Proposed  line  from  Central 
Siberia  to  the  Persian  Gulf — New  relations  between  Russia 
and  China,  arising  from  the  Siberian  Railway — Change  from 
route  as  originally  projected — New  route  to  Vladivostok — 
Rapid  settlement  of  country  on  Siberian  Railway — Quick 
growth  of  towns  on  the  line — Development  of  lands  to  fol- 
low railway  extension — Grazing  lands  on  Siberian  Railway 
— Small  lakes  through  Siberia — Timber  in  Western  Siberia.   103 


CHAPTER    VII 

Kurgan  on  the  Tobol  River — The  Kirghiz  Tartars — Their  tents, 
villages,  mode  of  life,  etc. — The  future  of  Kurgan — Winters 
in  Siberia — No  blizzards  in  Western  Siberia — Rainfall — Pet- 
ropavlovsk  on  the  Ishim  River — Rapid  change  in  country 
on  railway  line — Emigrant  trains  eastward — Growth  of 
grains  on  the  line  of  railway- — Surplus  awaiting  shipment — 

^__^^Omsk  on  the  Irtish  and  Om  rivers — Interesting  character — 
Tomsk  on  the  Tom  River — The  prison  in  Tomsk — Flour- 
ishing college  —  Electric  lights,  telephone  system,  and  other 
conveniences — Condition  of  railroad  east  of  Tomsk^Va- 
rious  excursions  from  Tomsk  into  the  country 


CHAPTER    VIII 

Travelling  on  post  and  common  roads  in  Russia  and  Siberia — 
Unique  outfit — Splendor  of  private  equipages — A  Siberian 
tarantass — Manner  of  hitching  the  horses — Speed  discom- 
forts and  excitement  of  travel  on  tarantass — Seeing  Tartar 
life  in  its  simplicity — A  queer-looking  vehicle — Homely  but 
effective — Experience  versus  philosophy — Furious  driving — 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  village  sheik — A  compatriot  of  the  great  Circassian, 
Schemyl — A  Mohammedan — His  family  life — Beauty  and 
filial  devotion  of  his  children — His  wives — Influence  of  the 
wife  among  the  Kalmucks — Kirghiz  village — Hospitality  of 
our  host — Our  Yamstchik — His  style  and  skill  as  a  driver — 
Great  speed  of  horses  without  use  of  whip — Return  to 
Tomsk — Various  modes  of  travel  .....   152 


CHAPTER    IX 

Return  westward — Route  across  the  Kirghiz  steppes  to  the  Cas- 
pian Sea — Down  the  Volga  River  to  Astrakhan — Rise  and 
commercial  importance  of  that  city — Modern  trade  diversion 
and  its  effects — Russia  a  land  of  fairs — Nijni  Novgorod  and 
its  great  fair — Kharkov,  Ilinsk,  and  other  leading  fairs — 
Preferred  route  across  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Central  Asia — 
Importance  of  the  Volga  River  as  a  means  of  transportation 
— Numerous  fleets  of  coal-oil  barges — Statistics  of  freight 
traffic  on  the  Volga  and  Onega  system — Partiality  of  Rus- 
sians for  American  products  and  methods    ....   192 


CHAPTER    X 

Development  of  Siberian  agricultural  resources — Its  effect  upon 
similar  interests  in  other  countries — Prime  conditions  gov- 
erning the  future  reclamation  of  lands  in  Siberia — Water- 
ways of  Russia — Careful  development  of  same — River  sys- 
tem in  Siberia — Severity  of  winters  restrict  their  use — Sea- 
son of  navigation — Omsk  as  a  centre  of  a  vast  cereal  region 
— Its  possible  connections  by  water  and  rail  with  foreign 
countries — Necessity  for  greater  transportation  facilities  in 
Western  Siberia — New  route  being  created  from  Omsk 
to  the  Baltic — New  route  between  Russia  and  Western 
Siberia — From  Omsk  to  Havre  or  London — Comparative 
distances         ..........  212 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    XI 

PAGE 

Transportation  route  in  Southwestern  Siberia — Route  between 
Caspian  and  Elactc  seas — -To  connect  the  Volga  and  Don 
rivers — All-waterway  between  Caspian  Sea  and  Europe — 
Neglect  of  American  waterways — Careful  preservation  of 
same  in  Europe — Methods  of  utilizing  rivers  in  Europe  for 
transportation  purposes — Use  of  the  Seine  in  France — 
Through  the  heart  of  France  in  a  boat — Neglect  and  decay 
of  American  rivers  as  lines  of  transport — Railways  versus 
water  transportation — What  would  result  from  thorough 
development  of  American  river  system — Russia's  real 
progress — Great  foresight — Not  doomed  to  the  fate  of  China 
— Russia  in  the  field  of  diplomacy — The  official  class — Re- 
dundant population — Its  danger  to  all  nations — Unwisdom 
of  developing  urban  at  the  expense  of  the  rural  population 
— Results  in  the  necessity  for  land-grabbing — Wise  policy 
underlying  settlement  of  Siberia — Plan  of  settlement — - 
Conserving  old  vested  interests — Deterrent  influences  in 
settlement  of  Siberia — Rapid  growth  of  population — Its  cur- 
rent necessities — Probable  effect  of  Siberia  upon  markets  in 
other  countries      .........  224 


CHAPTER    XII 

Russian  life  in  Siberia — Visiting  various  villages — Siberian 
towns  and  villages — Mostly  frame  or  log  houses — Efforts  at 
ornamentation — Number  and  appointment  of  rooms — Cloth- 
ing of  the  natives — The  Icon — The  Russian  peasant  most 
religious — In  the  peasant's  home — A  mark  of  respect  never 
to  be  omitted — Custom  of  recognizing  the  Icon  in  Russia 
universal — Fare  of  the  peasant— A  singular  bathroom — 
The  drink  of  the  peasant — Two  kinds  of  quass — Vodka,  its 
use  and  effects — Salutary  regulations  by  the  government — 
Worthy  of  imitation  by  other  nations — Siberia  the  land  of 
the  exile — Erroneous  impression  of  the  traveller — Courtesy 
of  Russian  officials — Abolition  of  serfdom — Its  effects  con- 
trasted with  abolition  of  slaverv  in   America — Administra- 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

tion  of  justice — Respect  for  law  and  authority — Difficulties 
encountered  by  Russia  in  its  development — Obstacles  to  its 
progress — Remarkable  national  development — Banishment 
of  bank  officials  to  Siberia — Their  status  during  and  after 
term  of  sentence — Punished  for  fraud  at  gaming — Not  a 
good  country  for  irregular  practices — Passport  system — 
Citizens  of  Russia  required  to  have  passport — Registration 
of  same,  fee,  etc. — Effects  of  the  passport  system— Special 
passport  required  to  leave  Russia — Beneficial  results  of 
same      ...........  240 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Passenger  boats  on  the  Caspian  Sea — New  lines  of  steamers — 
Petrovsk,  on  the  Caspian — Excursion  into  the  mountains 
— New  railway  to  Baku — Great  through  line  to  Central  \y' 
Asia — Important  influence  of  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway 
upon  the  world's  affairs — Extension  of  same  into  China — 
Distance  and  time  by  this  route  to  China — Direct  and  short 
route  to  Northern  India — Projected  line  of  railway  from 
Orenburg  to  Tashkent — Ambitions  of  Russia  in  a  new  field 
— Great  canal  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Baltic — Great 
commercial  and  strategic  importance  of  same — Steady  and 
persistent  progress  of  Russia — Her  advance  not  rapid,  but 
secure — Does  not  vaunt  her  enterprises — Effects  upon  politi- 
cal world  of  Trans-Caspian  Railway  to  be  greater  than  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway — New  route  from  Merv  to  Herat — 
Its  probable  influence  on  Afghanistan — Projected  lines  into 
Persia — Line  being  built  from  Armenia  to  Northern  Persia 
—Important  results  to  arise  therefrom  in  thatcountrj- — New 
line  projected  from  Samarkand  southward  to  Karshi — That 
city  the  key  to  Northeastern  Afghanistan — Possibility  of 
formidable  attack  of  Russia  upon  Northern  India  via  Cen- 
tral Asia — No  combination  of  powers  could  stay  it — Unim- 
portant part  naval  forces  would  play  in  such  a  contest — Rus- 
sia's contiguous  territory  and  interior  operations  a  manifest 
advantage — Such  a  conflict  might  require  the  whole  power 
of  Great  Britain  to  repel— Russia's  peace  proposal — Her  sin- 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

cerity  in  same — Prefers  peaceful  methods  to  those  of  war — 
Her  superior  strategical  position — May  not  Russia's  evident 
advantage  over  India  operate  to  preserve  peace  ? — The 
fortunate  position  of  America  in  the  event  of  a  great  Asiatic 
war         ...........  261 


CHAPTER    XIV 

The  great  city  of  Baku — Its  rapid  growth — Cause  of  same — Still 
growing  rapidly — The  petroleum  deposits  in  the  Caucasus 
— Number  of  wells  in  operation — Limited  exploration  in 
Caucasian  oil  fields — New  field  north  of  the  Caucasian  range 
of  mountains — Output  of  the  oil  wells  in  1897 — Stories  cur- 
rent in  Baku — A  lucky  Tartar — Wonderful  wells — Refin- 
eries in  "Black  Town,"  near  Baku — Crude  oil  extensively 
used  as  fuel  in  Southern  Russia — Desire  to  visit  Central 
Asia — Importance  of  that  country  politically — The  key  to 
India,  Western  China,  and  perhaps  Constantinople — Intri- 
cacies of  European  politics — India  the  real  storm-centre — 
India  indispensable  to  England's  power  and  greatness — Her 
anxiety  and  efforts  to  preserve  same — Her  fear  of  Russia's 
designs  upon  India — Has  relied  upon  her  great  navy- — -Her 
naval  strength  would  avail  but  little  to  check  Russia's  ad- 
vance through  Central  Asia — Russia's  railway  building  in 
Asia  regarded  as  a  menace  to  India — The  "gospel  of  the 
machine" — Russian  railway  advance  in  Asia — Desire  for 
alliances — The  open  door — Cautious  measures  of  Russia  in 
her  Central  Asian  possessions         ..,,,.  281 


CHAPTER    XV 

Admission  into  Trans-Caspian  country — Military  railway — Spe- 
cial permit  necessary  in  Trans-Caspian  region — Across 
Northern  Persia — On  the  Araxes  River — First  view  of  Mt. 
Ararat — Crossing  the  Araxes — Mt.  Ararat — Grandeur  of 
same — Ascent  of  Ararat — Armenian  Cemetery — Across  the 


CONTENTS 


Araxes  Valley — Erivan,  the  capital  of  Armenia — Mosques, 
palaces,  etc. — Change  under  Russian  rule — New  railway 
line  south  of  Erivan — Markets  in  Erivan — The  great-tailed 
sheep — On  the  road  to  the  Caucasus— Last  view  of  Mt.  Ara- 
rat— Curious  religious  sects — Picturesque  Lake  ofGoktcha 
— Height  above  the  sea — The  ancient  monastery  of  Sevanga 
— Over  the  Delijan  Pass — Descent  of  northern  slope  of  Ar- 
menian mountains — Arrival  at  Akstafa  on  the  Kura  River.  294 


CHAPTER   XVI 

The  Caucasus — Its  locality  and  extent — The  Kura  River — The 
Rion  River — Area  of  the  Caucasus — Population  of  the  same 
— Mountain  ranges — The  Greater  and  Lesser  Caucasian 
Mountains  joined  by  the  Suram  range — Climate  of  Caucasia 
— Products  of  the  soil — Statistics  of  live  stock — Valleys  in 
Eastern  Caucasus — Western  Caucasia — Roads — Military 
road  from  Tiflis  to  Vladikavkaz — Roads  in  Southern  Cau- 
casia and  Armenia — Caucasia  the  gateway  between  Europe 
and  Asia — Different  races — Tiflis,  the  capital  of  Georgia — 
Its  buildings,  streets,  etc. — The  Georgian  chieftain,  Schemyl 
— The  population  of  Tiflis — Many  military  and  civil  offi- 
cials— A  trip  to  Borjom,  Abbas-Tuman,  and  Kutais    ,         .  32^ 


CHAPTER    XVII 

Tiflis  to  Mtskheta — Great  antiquity  of  that  city — Founded  by 
near  descendant  of  Noah- — Interesting  old  bridge — Pom- 
pey's  conquest  of  this  country — Route  over  the  famous 
Dariel  Pass — Journey  up  the  valley  of  the  Kura  River — Soil 
and  climate  of  the  Caucasus — Agricultural  operations — 
Various  cereals  and  other  products — Indian  corn — Primi- 
tive implements — Cattle  and  buffaloes  used  to  draw  the 
plough — Cooperative  operations — Remarkable  results  in  the 
production  of  grain  in  the  Caucasus — The  cart  or  arba — 
The  new  line  of  the  Trans-Caucasian   railway — Petroleum 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

pipe  line  over  Suram  Mountains — On  the  road  to  Borjom 
— From  Borjom  to  Abbas-Tuman — Over  the  Lesser  Cau- 
casian Mountains — Soldiers  for  escorts — Brigands — Mag- 
nificent view  from  summit — Kutais — Its  history  and  impor- 
tance— Rich  valley  of  the  Rion — Return  to  Tiflis  .         .   349 


^CHAPTER  XVIII 

Return  to  Tiflis — Special  permit  to  visit  Central  Asia — Great 
courtesy  of  the  American  Ambassador,  Hon.  E.  A.' Hitch- 
cock— Return  to  Baku — Passage  across  the  Caspian  Sea — 
Arrival  at  Krasnovodsk — A  look  about  that  city — Rapid 
growth  of  same — Its  harbor  and  other  natural  advantages — 
Will  become  an  important  city — Railway  station — Splendid 
structure^ — Curious  mixture  of  natural  products — Blending 
of  Oriental  and  Occidental  races — Possible  result — Russia's 
fondness  for  American  products — Use  of  same  in  Russia 
— Her  probable  future  demand  for  Western  products — 
America's  opportunity — Trains  on  the  Trans-Caspian  Rail- 
way— Courtesy  of  the  railway  officials — Emigrants  to  the 
far  East — Departure  from  Krasnovodsk — New  petroleum 
field — Minerals  and  metals  here — Uzum-Ada,  the  old  ter- 
minus of  railway  —  The  plains  of  Turcomania — Persian 
Mountains — Central  Asia — A  vast  depressed  basin — Cas- 
pian Sea  below  ocean  level — Similar  depression  in  Sahara 
Desert — Russia's  Central  Asian  possessions — Sterility  of 
Turcomania  due  to  lack  of  rainfall — Oasis  of  Merv — Strabo's 
reference  to  it — Three  great  level  plateaus — Amu-Dariaand 
Svr-Daria  Rivers  ........  379 


CHAPTER   XIX 

The  old  bed  of  the  Amu-Daria  River — Across  a  desert — Oasis  of 
Kizyl-Arvat — Among  the  Turcomanians — A  splendid  race — 
His  dwelling — Women  in  Turcomania — Custom  of  poly- 
gamy— Purchase  of  wives — Weaving  of  rugs  and  carpets — 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Their  crude  device  for  same — Work  done  mainly  by  girls — 
Inferiority  of  the  new  to  the  old  product — Wealth  of  the 
Turcoman — Their  food,  clothing,  etc. — The  camel — Roads 
in  Turcomania — Caravans  of  camels — Along  the  Persian 
border  —  Askabad — New  and  beautiful  city  —  Vegetable 
products  of  this  region — Culture  of  cotton — Old  Teke  towns  399 

CHAPTER  XX 

Location  of  towns  on  Russian  railways — Her  occupation  of 
new  countries — Dushak,  the  southern  point  of  the  road — 
Irrigation  of  oasis  of  Merv — New  city  of  Merv — Railway 
from  Merv  to  Herat — Confidence  of  Russia  in  Central 
Asia — Growth  of  cotton — The  ancient  city  of  Merv — Extra- 
ordinary mounds — Homeof  Kuldja  Khan — Curious  custom 
of  naming  women — Fertility  of  the  oasis  of  Merv — Pasture 
land  and  jungles — Wild  animals — In  the  old  city  of  Merv 
— Its  extent  and  history — Complete  desolation — Home  of 
wild  beasts — Former  population — Founded  by  Alexander 
the  Great — Its  destruction     .......  422 

CHAPTER    XXI 

At  Bairom-Ali — Imperial  palace — From  fertile  fields  to  burning 
sands— March  of  Alexander  through  the  desert — From 
sterile  sands  to  fruitful  fields — The  Amu-Daria  River — Its 
length,  etc. — Quantity  of  water  in  the  Amu-Daria— Great 
railway  bridge  being  erected  over  the  Amu-Daria — Pos- 
sible diversion  of  the  course  of  this  great  river — The  slow 
and  vast  operations  of  nature — Immense  deposits  of  this 
great  river — Karakul — Rearing  of  the  sheep  here  known  as 
Persian  lamb  .........  448 


CHAPTER    XXII 

Bokhara — Courtesy  of  Russian  officials — The  Ameer  of  Bok- 
hara— Area  and  population  of  Bokhara — Its  destruction  by 
the   Tartars — The  ruling-  race — The  Usbeg-s  inferior  to  the 


CONTENTS  xvii 

PAGE 

Turcomans — Mosques  and  colleges — The  mosque  of  Ta- 
merlane in  the  Reghistan — Inferior  to  the  ruins  of  Samar- 
kand— Palace  of  the  Ameer  of  Bokhara — Citadel  of  Alp- 
Arslan —Bazaars  in  Bokhara — Buildings,  etc. — Customs, 
police  regulations,  etc. — Vices  and  virtues  of  the  Bokhari- 
ans — Temperance  among  the  inhabitants — An  agreeable 
contrast — Introduction  of  opium  into  Central  Asia — An  in- 
structive incident  .........  466 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

Bokhara  to  Samarkand — Residence  of  Governor  of  Turkestan 
— His  great  civility — Beauty  of  Samarkand — Avenues  of 
acacias  and  poplars — The  old  city  of  Samarkand — In  ruins, 
but  picturesque — Once  a  great  capital — Splendor  under  the 
Arabs  and  under  Tamerlane — A  seat  of  learning — Archi- 
tecture in  old  city  of  Samarkand — Colleges  in  Samarkand 
— Mosques,  tombs,  and  palaces — The  Shah-Zindah — -The 
Tilla-Kari  and  Khanym— Exquisite  effect  of  tessellated  tiles 
— The  great  mosque  erected  by  sister  of  Tamerlane — Simi- 
larity of  architecture  between  Central  Asia  and  that  of  the 
Moguls  in  India — A  huge  pulpit  and  voluminous  Koran     .  493 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

Medressehs  or  colleges  in  Samarkand — The  tomb  of  Tamer- 
lane— Tiie  sarcophagus  of  tlie  great  Tartar — Interior  orna- 
mentation— The  Russian  citadel-^Kok-Tash,  or  throne  of 
Tamerlane — The  Shadman-Melik — Its  peculiar  construction 
— Excursion  in  the  mountains — The  beauty  of  Samarkand — 
Reminiscences  of  Alexander  the  Great — Social  customs, 
etc. — Polygamy— Peculiar  equipage      .....   514 


CHAPTER    XXV 

Natives,  or  Sarts — Seeing  native   life    and  customs — Dinner  at 
the    residence   of   the  Amban  or  native  mayor  of  Samar- 


xviii  CONTENTS 


kand — Our  host  and  his  guests — Oriental  features  of  the 
occasion — Brilliant  surroundings — The  Russians— The 
dances — No  women  as  dancers — Boy  dancers  dressed  in 
the  habits  of  women — The  music  of  the  Sart — At  first  un- 
pleasant— Wherein  lies  the  charm  of  Oriental  music — Due 
to  rhythm — Influence  hypnotic — Similar  emotional  state 
of  howling  and  dancing  dervishes — The  dinner — Various 
native  dishes,  Kiabab,  Cavourna,  Pilaf,  etc. — Oriental 
dancing — Producing  similar  effects  by  rhythm  of  motion — 
Concluding  reflections   ........   531 


LIST    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

Viseed   Passport,  used  by  the  Author  in   his  Travels  in  Siberia 

and  Central  Asia  .......     Fro7itispiece 

PAGE 

Trans-Siberian    Railway  Train — Observation  Compartment   in 

Rear  Car         ..........        7 

Railway  Officials  on  Trans-Siberian  Railway  Train  .         .11 

Russian   Isvoshtchik,  or  Droshky  Drivers  .         .         .         .14 

A  Russian   Patyorka,   or  Five-horse  Team  .  .         .  .15 

Group  of  Peasants  in  Russian  Village       .         .         .         .         .27 

Russian  Peasant's  Log  Cabin  in  Commune  or  Village     .         .     29 
A  Village  on  the  Russian  Steppes      ......     30 


45 
47 
49 


Syzran   on  the  Volga  River 

Samara  on   the  Volga  River 

Batraki   on  the  Volga  River 

Great  Bridge  across  the  Volga  River  at  Batraki  on  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  .         .  .  .  .  .  .51 

Russian  Village  on  the  Ufa  River     ......     i^}, 

First    View    of    the    Ural    iMountains     after     passing    Wajsao- 

waja,  Trans-Siberian   Railway       ......     54 

The  Western  Slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains  on  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  between    Ufa  and  Zlatoust     .         .         -55 

Station  at  Zlatoust  on  Trans-Siberian  Railway  near  the  Sum- 
mit of  the  Ural  IMountains  ......     56 

Monument  on  Summit  of  Ural  Mountains  indicating  Divid- 
ing Line  between  Europe  and   Asia  .         .         .         -57 

Eastern    Slope  of  the   Ural   Mountains   on    the  Trans-Siberian 

Railway,  Midway  between  Zlatoust  and  Tscheljabinsk       .     58 

Eastern  Slope  of  L'^ral  Mountains  on  Trans-Siberian  Railway, 

Eighty  Miles  from  the  Summit  of  the  Ural  Mountains     .     59 


XX  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


On  Trans-Siberian    Railway    just  before    arriving  at  Tscliel- 

jabinslv  ..........     60 

Railway  Station   at  Tscheljabinsk,  the  End  of  the  First  Section 

of  Trans-Siberian   Railway,   at   the  Eastern   Foot  of  Ural 

Mountains      ..........     62 

Entering  the  Plains  or  Steppes  of  Siberia  on  the  Trans-Siberian 

Railway,  One  Hundred  Miles  East  of  the  Ural  Mountains     63 
Crossing  the  Siberian  Steppes,  Two  Hundred  Miles  East  of  the 

Ural  Mountains,   on  the  Siberian   Railway  .  .         .64 

Kirghiz  Tartar  Aul  or  Village  on  Siberian  Steppes  .         .     65 

View  across  .Siberian  Steppes,  Three  Hundred  Miles  East  of 

the  Ural  Mountains      ........     68 

Group  of  Kirghiz  Tartars  at  Station  on  Siberian   Railway  .     69 

On  Siberian  Steppes,  Three  Hundred  and  Fifty  Miles  East  of 

Ural  Mountains 72 

On    Siberian    Steppes,    Eight    Hundred    Miles    East    of    Ural 

Mountains      ..........     72 

View  across  the  Irtish  River,  Siberia  .         .  ...     74 

Station    on   Siberian    Railway,    Four  Hundred    Miles    East    of 

Ural   Mountains  ........     75 

View  across  the  Ishim   River,   .Siberia         .         .         .  .         -11 

On  the  Tom  River,  Siberia  .......     78 

New   Settlement  on    Open    Steppes  of  Siberia,    Six    Hundred 

Miles  East  of  Ural  Mountains        ......     79 

On  Siberian  .Steppes  or  Prairies,  Four  Hundred  and  Fifty  Miles 

East  of  the  Ural  Mountains  .......     81 

On  Siberian  Steppes,  between  Kurgan  and  Petropavlovsk  .     82 

Two  Views  across  Siberian  Steppes    ......     83 

View  across  Siberian  Steppes,  Five  Hundred   Miles  East  of  the 

Ural  Mountains     .........     86 

Kirghiz  Tartars  and  Camel  Train  on  Siberian  Steppes  .  .  88 
Railway  Bridge  over  the  Obi  River  on  Siberian  Railway  .  .  89 
Railway  Station   on   Siberian  Railway,   Eight  Hundred   Miles 

East   of  Ural    Mountains,    or   over   Two   Thousand    Miles 

East  of  Moscow     .........     91 

Station  on  Siberian  Railway  .......     92 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

PAGE 

Sacked  Grain  awaiting  Shipment  at  the  Station  on  Siberian 
Railway  between  Omsk  and  Tomsk,  over  One  Thousand 
Miles  East  of  the  Ural  Mountains  .....     93 

Passenger  Train  for  Ordinary  Service  on  Trans-Siberian  Rail- 
way, making  Daily  Trips  to  Tomsk,  nearly  Three  Thou- 
sand Miles  East  of  Moscow  .......     94 

View  on  the  Siberian  Steppes,  between  the  Tobol  and  Ishim 
Rivers.  Emigrant  Train  crossing  the  Steppes  to  occupy 
New  Lands    ..........     95 

On  the  Open  Steppes  of  Siberia,  about  One  Thousand  Miles 
East  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  or  nearly  Two  Thousand  Four 
Hundred  Miles  East  of  Moscow    ......     96 

View  across  Siberian  Prairies       .......     97 

Distant  Herd  of  Cattle  on  Siberian  Plains  or  Steppes  .         .     98 

Emigrants  at  Railway  Station  between  Kainsk  and  Tomsk  on 

the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  .......     99 

New  Settlement  on   Siberian    Railway,   One   Thousand    Mdes 

East  of  the  Ural  Mountains  .......   102 

View  across  the  Siberian  Steppes,  Nine  Hundred  Miles  East  of 
the  Ural  Mountains,  or  about  Two  Thousand  Two  Hun- 
dred Miles  East  of  ^Ioscow  ......   104 

Recent  Settlement  on   Siberian  Railway,  One  Thousand   One 

Hundred  Miles  East  of  Ural  Mountains        ....   105 

Recent  .Settlement  on  Siberian    Railway,   Nine  Hundred   and 

Fifty  Miles  East  of  Ural  Mountains       .....   107 

New  Settlement    on    Siberian   Railway,   Two    Thousand    Five 
Hundred     Miles     East    of    Moscow,     between     Obb     and 
Tomsk    ...........   109 

New    Settlement  on   Trans-Siberian   Railway,    One    Thousand 
One  Hundred  Miles  East  of  the  Urals,  and  between  Kri- 
wostchekowo  and  Kainsk       .  .  .  .  .         .  .110 

Church  in  New  Town  of  Obb        .         .         .         .  .  .  .Ill 

New  Settlement  on  Siberian  Railway,  One  Thousand  Two 
Hundred  and  Fifty  Miles  East  of  the  Urals,  or  about  Two 
Thousand  Five  Hundred  Miles  East  of  Moscow  .         .  .   113 


xxii  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Station  on  the  Open  Steppes  of  Siberia  on  tlie  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  over  One  Thousand  Miles  East  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  about  Two  Thousand  Two  Hundred  Miles 
East  of  Moscow 114 

On  the  Siberian  Steppes  or  Prairies,  over  One  Thousand  Miles 
East  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  about  Two  Thousand 
Two  Hundred. Miles  East  of  Moscow  .....   115 

On  the  Siberian  Steppes,  between  the  Ishim  and  Irtish   Rivers, 

on  the  Line  of  the  Siberian  Railway      .         .         .         .         .116 

Recent  Settlement  on  Siberian  Railway,  between  the  Obi  and 
Tom  Rivers,  about  Two  Thousand  Four  Hundred  Miles 
East  of  Moscow 117 

Lake  on  the  Siberian  Steppes        ...... 

Emigrants  on  Siberian  Steppes,  East  of  the  Obi  River 

Chapel  in  recently  settled  Town  on  Siberian  Railway 

Station  at  Kurgan,  Siberian  Railway  ..... 

Kirghiz  Tartar,  Camels,  and  Camel  Cart    .... 

Kirghiz  Yurt,  or  Tent,  and  Group  of  Tartars  on  the  Siberian 
Steppes,  between  Kurgan  and  Petropavlovsk 

Tartar  Camel  Train  on  Siberian  Steppes     .... 

Church  in  New  Siberian  Village  ..... 

A  Tartar  Dug-out  on  Road  South  of  Omsk 

On  the  Post-route  from  Petropavlovsk  to  Omsk  . 

Station  at  Petropavlovsk,  Siberian  Railway.  Group  of  Kirghiz 
Tartars  ......... 

Street  Scene  in  Omsk  ........ 

Emigrants  at  Station,  between  Petropavlovsk  and  Omsk,  on 
Siberian  Railway   ........ 

Street  Scene  in  Tomsk  ....... 

On  the  Steppes  of  Siberia,  East  of  Kurgan  . 

Street  Scene  in  Tomsk  ....... 

Distant  View  of  Tomsk         ....... 

Market  Scene  in  Tomsk 

Village  in  Siberia,  in  the  Tom  River  Valley,  on  the  Post-route 
from  Tomsk  to  Tobolsk  ...... 


118 
119 
121 
124 
125 

127 
129 
131 

135 

137 
139 

141 

143 
144 

145 
145 

147 

148 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Emigrant  Train  between  Petropavlovsk  and  Omslc,  Two  Tliou 

sand  ]\Iile5  East  of  Moscow  .... 

View  on  Post-route,  between  Tomslc  and  Irkutsk 
Patyorka,  a  Five-horse  Team  on  Siberian  Steppes 
Another  Mode  of  Travelling  in  Siberia 
Street  Scene  in  Tomsk  ..... 

Siberian  Tarantass         ...... 

Native  waiting  for  Ferry  on  Tom  River 

Crossing  Tom  River,  Siberia,  on  a  Rude  Ferry-boat 

At  the  Post-house 

Taking   Tea    "  Al    Fresco"    with    a    Russian    Family   at  Post 

house      .......... 

Russian  Village  on  Post-route,  South  of  Tomsk,  Siberia    . 
Ready  to  Start.     At   the    Post-house   on    Post-route,  South  o 

Tomsk,  in  Direction  toward  Semipalatinsk  . 
Cathedral  in  Tomsk      ........ 

Street  Scene  in  Tomsk  ....... 

Kirghiz  Tartar  Family  on  Siberian  Steppes.     The  Tartar  Yurt 

or  Tent  ...... 

Great  Forty-ton  Bell  at  Cathedral  in  Tomsk 
On  the  Turf  at  Tomsk  .... 

On  the  Home  Stretch  .... 

Street  Scene  in  Tomsk  .... 

Washerwomen  at  Tomsk      .... 

Railway  Station  on  Siberian  Railway,  between  the  Obi  and  Tom 

Rivers,  about  One  Thousand  One  Hundred  Miles  East  of 

the  Ural  Mountains 
Station   on   the   Trans-Siberian    Railway,  between   Tomsk   and 

Tiaga     ...... 

Street  Scene  in  Astrakhan    . 

On  the  Volga  River      .... 

Fire  Worshippers'  Temple  in  Astrakhan 

The  Kremlin  in  Astrakhan 

Scene  on  the  Landing  at  Astrakhan 

View  of  the  Upper  Town  of  Nijni  Novgorod,  on  North  Bank  of 

the  Volgfa       .......... 


149 
151 
53 
'55 
0-6 
■SI 
[60 
[61 
"63 

165 
.67 

[68 
[69 

[71 

173 
77 
179 
[81 
t83 
185 


.87 

.89 
'93 
'95 
[96 

'97 
'99 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Town  on  the  \'olga  River,  between  Kazan  and  Nijni  Novgorod 

View  of  Nijni  Novgorod,  where  the  Great  Fair  is  held,  on  South 
Side  of  the  Volga  ..... 

Picturesque  Formation  on  the  Volga  River,  Two  Hundred  Miles 
above  Astrakhan    ....... 

The  Cathedral  in  Nijni  Novgorod         .... 

Watermelon   Market  at  Landing  on  the  Volga  River,  be 
Simbirsk  and  Saratov     ...... 

Fishing  Village  on  the  Obi  River,  Siberia    . 

Town  on  the  Lower  Volga  River  .... 

View  across  Tom  River,  Siberia  .... 

Ferry-boat  on  Tom  River,  Siberia        .... 

Houses  for  Storage  of  Grain  and  Wheat  in  Sacks  awaiting  Ship- 
ment at  New  Railway  Station,  Eight  Hundred  Miles  East 
of  the  Ural  Mountains,  on  Trans-Siberian  Railway 

Scene,  on  the  Irtish  River,  Siberia         ..... 

View  across  the  Irtish  River,  Siberia  ..... 

View  across  the  Tom  River,  .Siberia    ..... 

W^harf-boat  and  Landing  on  Volga  River,  below  Tzaritzin 

Town  on  the  Volga  River     ....... 

Village  in  Siberia,  between  Tomsk  and  the  Yenisei  River. 

Houses  in  Small  Siberian  Town,  on  the  Post-road  to  Tobolsk 

Dwelling-house   in   Siberian  Village,  on   Post-route  from  Tiag 
to  Tomsk        ....... 

Siberian  Village  in  Obi  Valley      .... 

New  Village  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tom  River,  Siberia 

Cask  of  Water  at  Station  on  Siberian  Railway,  supplied  with 
Boiled  Water  for  Use  of  Passengers 

The  Great  Petroleum  City  of  Baku,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  the 
Eastern  Caucasus.    View  from  the  Bay 

General  View  of  the  Citv  of  Baku 

Cathedral  in  Baku         ...... 

Railway  Station  in  Baku        ..... 

General  View  of  the  City  and  Harbor  of  Baku     . 

Oil  Field  South  of  Baku,  near  the  Shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
operated  by  English  and  French  Capitalists 


I'AGE 
208 

211 

215 
216 
218 


219 
220 
221 
222 
22  ^ 
238 
241 
243 


245 
246 

247 


262 
263 
266 
269 
280 

282 


LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Oil  Field  Northwest  of  Baku,  Several  Hundred   Feet  above  the 

Sea  Level,  operated  by  Swedish  and  French  Capitalists       .  284 

A  Celebrated  Spouter 287 

Interior    of   the    Ancient   Palace   of  the  Viceroys   of  Persia  in 

Erivan  ..........   -95 

Caravan    crossing  the   Araxes  River,  on  the  Borders  of  Russia 

and  Persia,  en  route  for  Erivan,  Armenia    ....   297 
On    the    Banks   of   the    Araxes    River,    forming    the    Boundary 

between  Russia  and  Persia  ......  298 

Group  of  Natives  at  Kamerlu 299 

In  the  Valley   of  the   Araxes  River.     Little  and  Great  Ararat 

Mountains  in  the  Distance    .......  301 

Distant  View  of  Mt.  Ararat 302 

Rude  Ferry  across  the  Araxes  River  .  .  _       .  .         .   303 

On  the  Road  to  Mt.  Ararat 3'^7 

Cossack  Cavalrymen  on  the  Road  to  Mt.  Ararat  .         .         .  309 

Returning  from  Mt.  Ararat 3'° 

Persian  Cart  or  Arba    .         . 311 

Market  Scene  in  Erivan.     Great  Fat-tailed  Sheep        .         .         .  312 
An  Armenian  Cemetery       ........  313 

View  of  Mt.  Ararat,  looking  Southward  from  Erivan,  the  Capital 

of  Armenia    ........••  3^5 

New  Mosque  of  Huessin  Ali  Khan  in  Erivan       ....  316 

Street  Scene  in  Erivan 317 

Ancient  Mohammedan  Mosque  in  Erivan  ....  319 

A  Dukobortsi  Village — a  Religious  Sect  in  Northern  Armenia 

— on  the  Road  from  Erivan  to  Tiflis     .....  320 
Regiment  of  Cossacks   on   their  Way  to  Northern  Border   of 

Persia,  on  the  Araxes  River  .         .         .         .         .         -321 

Threshing  Grain  in  Armenia        .......  324 

Little  Island  in  Lake  Goktcha,  on  which  the  Ancient  Monastery 

of  Sevanga  is  located     ........ 

Skoptsy  Village— a  Peculiar  Religious  Sect  with  Remarkable 

Customs — in  Northern  Armenia 

On  the  Road  to  Lake  Sevanga,  in   Northern  Armenia,  and  on 

the  Route  from  EInofka  to  Akstafa       ..... 


324 
325 
326 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


On    the    Northern    Slope    of  tlie    Lesser  Caucasian   Mountains, 

after  leaving  the  Delijan  Pass         ..... 

General  View  of  the  City  of  Tifiis         ..... 

Street  Scene  in  Tiflis    ........ 

View  of  Tiflis  from  the  Fortress  above  the  City 

Street  Scene  in  Tiflis    ........ 

Valley  of  the    Kura  River,  about  One   Hundred   Miles  East  o 

Tiflis,  and  in  the  Vicinitv  of  Akstafa     .... 

Floating  Water-mills  on  the  Kura  River  in  the  City  of  Tiflis 
Caucasians  and  Their  Costumes  ..... 

Funeral  Cortege  in  Tiflis     ....... 

The  Theatre  in  Tiflis    ........ 

Mounted  Cossacks  in  Public  Square  in  the  City  of  Tiflis 

A  Bazaar  in  the  Persian  Quarter  in  the  City  of  Tiflis 

Street  Scene  in  the  Persian  Quarter  in  Tiflis 

Street  Scene  in  the  Persian  Quarter  of  Tiflis 

General  View  of  Tiflis,  from  Elevation  in  Western  Part  of  the 

City,  looking  Eastward  .... 

On  the   Kura   River,  in  the   Western   Suburbs  of  Tiflis,  on   the 

Road  to  Borjom      ...... 

In  the  Kura  Valley,  between  Tiflis  and  Mtskheta 

On  the  Kura  River,  Caucasia,  near  Mtskheta 

In  the   Valley   of  the   Aragya,  on    the   Military   Road  over  the 

Caucasian  Mountains,  from  Tiflis  to  Vladikavkaz 
Over  the  Dariel  Pass,  on  Military  Road   from   Tiflis   to  Vladi 

kavkaz.      Mount  Kasbek  in  the  Distance 
Ploughing  in  the  Kura  Valley       .... 

Scene  in  a  Farm  Village  on  the  Aragya 

Scene  between  Mikhailov  and  Borjom 

Cart,  or  Arba,  used  for  Farm  and  Road  Purposes 

View  near  Gori,  on  the  Kura  River 

In  the  Kura  Valley        ...... 

Persian  Minister's  Residence  in  Borjom 

The    Summer    Palace    of    His    Imperial    Highness    the    Grand 

Duke    Michael,    on    the    Banks    of  the    Kura    River,    near 

Borjom    ........ 


y-1 

2)'h- 
1>ZI 
336 

'^yi 
340 
341 
343 
344 
345 
346 
347 

350 

351 
352 
353 


356 
357 
360 
361 

365 
367 
36S 


569 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxvii 

PAGE 

His  Imperial  Highness  Grand  Duke  Michael  on  his  Daily  Drive 

in  Borjom       ..........  370 

Market  Scene  in  Kutais        ........  371 

Soldier  on  the  Mountain  Side,  after  leaving  Abbas-Tuman,  on 

the  Road  to  Kutais,  over  the  Lesser  Caucasian  Mountains  .  372 

Street  Scene  in  Kutais 374 

On  the  Summit  of  the  Lesser  Caucasian  Mountains.      Russian 

and  Cossack  Guards       ........   375 

Market  Scene  in  Kutais         ........  377 

Krasnovodsk  and  Harbor,  the  Western  Terminus  of  the  Trans- 
Caspian  Railway,  on  the  Eastern  Shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea  382 
New  Railway  Station  at  Krasnovodsk,  the  Western  Terminus  of 


the  Trans-Caspian  Railway  ...... 

Trans-Caspian  Railway  Train       ...... 

New  Oil  Wells  recently  opened  on  the  Shores  of  the  Caspian 

Sea,  on  the  Line  of  Railway  below  Krasnovodsk 
Russian  Military  Encampment  on  Open  Plains   . 
Station  on  Trans-Caspian  Railway        ..... 
View  across  the  Plains  of  Turcomania,  between    Askabad    and 

Dushak,  on  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway 
Turcomanian    Tartars    at    Kizyl-Arvat,  Station    on   the  Trans 

Caspian  Railway     ........ 

Turcomanians  and  their  Yurts  or  Tents      .... 

Turcoman  Village  on  the  Plains  of  Turcomania,  between  Kizyl 

Arvat  and  Askabad        ....... 

Turcoman  Tents  ......... 

Turcoman  Tartars  at  Geok-Tepe,  Station  on  the  Trans-Caspian 

Railway  ......... 

Turcoman  Girls  weaving  Carpets  under  a  Temporary  Canopy 

adjoining  their  Tent       ....... 

Turcoman  Tent  on  the  Plains  of  Tartary      .... 

Camel  Caravan  crossing  the  Plains  of  Turcomania 

View  across  the  Desert  of  Turcomania,  looking  toward  the  Per 

sian  Mountains       ........ 

Turcoman  Village  on  the  Open  Plains,  between  Geok-Tepe  and 

Askabad         ......... 


384 
387 

390 
391 
394 

396 

400 
401 

403 
405 

406 

408 
409 
411 

414 
415 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Station  at  Askahad,  on  Trans-Caspian  Railway 

Station  of  Dju-dju-ivly,  on  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway 

Scene  near  Askabad 

Irrigating-  Canals  in  Oasis  of  Merv 

Extraordinary  Mounds  near  Merv 

Home  of  Kuldja  Khan  . 

Distant  View  of  Old  City  of  Merv 

Gateway  into  Old  City  of  Merv     . 

In  the  Old  City  of  Merv 

In  the  Old  City  of  Merv 

Walls  and  Gateway  of  the  Old  City  of  Merv 

Distant  View  of  Merv  .... 

Ruined  Mosque  of  the  Sultan  Sanjare 

Ruined  Mosque  in  Old  City  of  Merv    . 

Old  Walls  around  Ancient  City  of  Merv 

Old  Wall  and  Gateway  in  City  of  Merv 

Across  the  Desert  ..... 

Station  at  Bairom-Ali  on  Trans-Caspian   Railway,  on  the  Road 

to  Bokhara     .... 
Bundles  of  Fagots  used  as  a  Sand  Barrier  to   protect  the  Rai 

way  against  the  Drifting  Sand 
Market  Scene  in  the  Town  of  Amu-Daria,  on   the  Banks  of  the 

Amu-Daria  River  ...... 

On  the  Amu-Daria,  above  the  City  of  that  Name 
Temporary  Railway  Bridge  over  the  Amu-Daria  River 
Street  in  Amu-Daria    ....... 

Railway  Station  at  the  New,  or  Russian,  Town  of  Bokhara,  the 

Old  City  being  Twelve  Miles  from  the  Railway    . 
New  Palace  being  built  by  Russia  for  the  Ameer  of  Bokhara, 

near  the   Station    in   the   New,  or   Russian,   Town   of  that 

Name     ........... 

Old  Mosque  said  to  have  been  built  by  Tamerlane 

Summer    Palace  of  the  Ameer  of  Bokhara,   between  the  New 

and  Old  Cities  of  that  Name  ...... 

The  Ameer  of  Bokhara        ........ 


PAGE 
416 

418 
419 

4-3 
426 
427 
429 
433 
435 
437 

439 
440 

441 

444 

445 

449 

451 

452 

453 
455 
457 
459 

460 


462 
463 

464 
467 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxix 


Tower   formerly  used   to  execute  Criminals  by  throwing  them 

from  the  Top  .........  469 

471 
472 

473 
475 
477 


Reghistan,  or  Market-place,  in  Bokhara,  near  the  Old  Citadel 
Old  Mosque,  covered  with  Variegated  Tiles         .         .         .      ■ 
Bazaar  in  Bokhara        ........ 

A  Graveyard  in  the  City  of  Bokhara    ..... 

Native  Bokharians,  Father  and  Sons  ..... 

The  Citadel  in  Bokhara,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Alp-Arslan 

the  Persian  King    ........ 

Muezzin  calling  the  Faithful  to  Prayer  from  the   Minaret  of  a 

Mosque  in  Bokhara        ....... 

View  over  the  Roofs  of  the  Houses  in  Bokhara   . 

Bazaar  in  Bokhara         ........ 

Street  and  Old  Mosque  in  the  Neighborhood   of  the  Reghistan 

or  Market-place      ........ 

Ruined  Minaret,  encased  with  Beautiful  Variegated  Tiles 
Ruins  of  Ancient  Mosque  near  the  Reghistan,  in  Bokhara. 
Irrigating    Canals    on   the   Plains   of  Bokhara,  on  the  Road  to 

Samarkand.     Water  drawn  from  the  Zerafshan  River 
Palace  of  the  Ameer  of  Bokhara  ..... 

College,  or  Medresseh,  in  Bokhara  ..... 
Park  in  the  City  of  Samarkand,  in  Front  of  the  Tomb  of  Tamer 

lane        .......... 

Street  Scene  in  Samarkand  ...... 

Mosque  near  the  Reghistan,  built  by  Tamerlane,  in  Samarkand  497 
Mosque    near  Centre   of  City,   built  by   Tamerlane,  called   the 

Tilla-Kari       ..........  498 

Street  Scene  in  Samarkand  ........  499 

Street  Scene  in   Samarkand,  showing  the  Mosque  of  Khanym, 

erected    by  Tamerlane  to    his    Favorite   Wife,  a  Chinese 


479 

480 
481 

483 

484 
485 
487 

488 
489 
492 

494 
495 


Princess  .... 

Street  Scene  in  Samarkand  . 
Mohammedans  at  Prayer 
Entrance  to  the  Mosque  Shah-Zindah 

Variegated  Coloringr 
Medresseh,  or  Native  College,  in  Old 


501 

.  502 

503 

Tessellated   Tiles,  with 

505 

Samarkand        .         .         .  507 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Street  Scene  in  Samarkand.     Street  leading  from  Railway  Sta 

tion  to  the  Citadel  in  the  City         ..... 
Ruius  of  the   Mosque   built   by   Sister  of  Tamerlane 
Great  Marble  Pulpit  in  Front  of  Mosque   built  by  Tamerlane'; 

Sister      .......... 

Interior  of  Tamerlane's  Tomb.     His  Sarcophagus  and  those  of 

his  Son  and  Prime  Minister  ...... 

Street  Scene  in  the  New,  or  Russian,  City  of  Samarkand    . 
Tomb  of  Tamerlane,  located  on  the  Edge  of  a  Great  Park  in  the 

New,  or  Russian,  City  of  Samarkand  .... 
Kok-Tash,  or  Throne  of  Tamerlane  ..... 
Entrance  to  the  Tomb  of  Tamerlane  ..... 
Exterior   of  Tomb   of  Tamerlane,  in    New,  or  Russian,  City   of 

Samarkand     .         .         .         .  ... 

The  Shadman-Malik,  or  Bridge  of  Tamerlane     . 

Street  Scene  in  Samarkand  ....... 

Burial  Place  of  Mohammedan  Saints,  near  the  Great  ]\Iosque 

of  the  Tilla-Kari,  in  Samarkand  ..... 
A  Queer  Equipage.       A  INIohammedan  and  his  Wives  out  for  a 

Drive      .......... 

Market  Scene  in  Samarkand         ...... 

A  Mohammedan  and  his  Wives.      Scene  in  the  Park  in  the  New 

or  Russian,  City  of  Samarkand  ..... 
Natives,  or  Sarts.  Father  and  Son  ..... 
Aledresseh,  or  Native  College,  located  in  the  Old  City  of  Samar 

kand        .......... 

Street  Scene  in  the   Old  City   of  Samarkand,  leading  from  the 

Public  Square  to  the  Great  Mosque  of  Tamerlane 
In  the   Old  City    of  Samarkand,  Street  leading    to   the    Great 

Mosque   of  the   Shah-Zindah.       Native  Sarts  in  the  Fore- 
ground   536 

Street  Scene  in  the  Russian,  or  New,  City  of  Samarkand    .  .   537 

Ruins  of  the  Mosque  of  the  Shah-Zindah,   in  the  Old  City    of 

Samarkand     ..........   538 

Entrance  through  the  Enclosing  Wall  that  surrounds  the  Tomb 

of  Tamerlane,  in  the  City  of  Samarkand        ....   539 


509 
510 

511 

515 
517 

518 

519 
521 

522 
523 
525 

526 

527 

533 
534 
535 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xxxi 


PAGE 


View  in  tlie  Parlv  in  the  Old  City  of  Samarkand  .         .         .   540 

Dancers  and  Musicians  at  Banquet  in  Samarkand       .         .         .  541 
Native  Musicians  in  the  Old  City  of  Samarkand  .         .         .  543 

Dancers  at  Banquet  in  the  Old  City  of  Samarkand      .         .         .  544 
Shadman-Malik,  or   Bridge  of  Tamerlane,  over  the   Zerafshan 

River,  Twenty  Miles  from  City  of  Samarkand       ,         .  .   545 

Market  Scene  in  the  Old  City  of  Samarkand         ....  546 
Street  Scene  in  the  New  Town  of  Samarkand      ....  547 


SIBERIA  AND  CENTRAL  ASIA 


I 


Trans-Siberian  railway — Its  commercial  and  political  importance — 
The  effect  it  has  already  produced — Russia's  military  strength 
— Napoleon's  estimate  of  Russian  soldiers — Probable  interna- 
tional complications  to  arise  from  Russia's  industrial  advance 
eastward — Our  own  relation  thereto — General  features  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railway — The  trains  and  their  equipment — 
Travel  on  the  post-routes  of  Russia — Humane  law  respecting 
horses. 

Moscow,  July,  1898. 

I  AM  startinof,  in  a  few  hours,  on  a  lono^  and 
somewhat  trying  journey  right  into  the  depths 
of  Siberia.  As  most  of  my  trip  will  be  done  on  the 
new  Trans-Siberian  railway,  you  may  be  perhaps 
interested  in  the  facts  and  details  I  have  thus  far 
been  enabled  to  collect  concerning  this  extraordi- 
nary enterprise,  destined,  as  I  believe,  to  have  more 
far-reaching  political,  commercial,  and  even  ethno- 
logical influences  than  any  industrial  and  economic 
scheme  that  has  ever  been  conceived  or  executed. 

It  constitutes  the  first  link  in  the  great  chain 
that  will   bind   in    close  union,  harmonv,  and  svm- 


2  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

pathy,  two  of  the  mightiest  l)ranches  of  tlic  human 
family,  having  racial  and  traditional  affinities,  and 
embracing  almost  one-half  of  the  human  race. 

Even  in  its  partially  completed  condition,  it  has 
already  perceptibly  tilted  the  political  and  com- 
mercial world  on  its  axis.  It  has  thrown  Eno^land 
into  a  state  of  orreat  alarm  for  the  safetv  of  India, 
and  has  caused  that  descent  of  other  European 
nations  upon  the  China  littoral,  where,  in  a  limited 
area,  there  is  to  be  much  future  strife,  wrangling, 
and,  perhaps,  profitless  warfare. 

It  almost  takes  one's  breath  away  to  contemplate 
the  tremendous  consequences  that  must  ensue 
when,  through  material  or  other  agencies,  peoples 
whose  wondrous  past  and  present  achievements 
suggest  vast  latent  possibilities,  are  united  by  a 
common  interest  and  policy.  One  can  almost  see 
the  certain  absorption  of  Persia  and  the  Ottoman 
Empire  on  the  one  hand,  and  India  on  the  other. 
In  such  an  event,  the  world  may  see  four-fifths  of 
its  population  acting  in  accord,  the  permanence  of 
which  is  guaranteed  by  ethnical  affinities. 

In  this  view  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  on 
account  of  the  impenetrability  of  this  vast  region, 
no  combination  of  forces  could  prevent  or  even 
arrest  the  execution  of  policies  and  schemes  that 
diplomacy  or  interest  might  suggest.  The  history 
of  Russia  alone   points   a  valuable    lesson   in    this 


MILITARY    STRENGTH    OF    RUSSIA  3 

connection.  Of  her  population  nearly  nine-tenths 
are  engaged  in  agriculture.  It  is  not  in  this  respect 
alone  that  she  retains  the  characteristics  of  her 
ancient  pastoral  progenitors.  The  retreat  of  the 
Scythians  before  the  hosts  of  Darius,  described 
by  Herodotus  with  such  lively  interest,  until  the 
invincible  armies  of  Persia  were  worn  out  by  the 
pursuit  of  a  foe  that  would  not  fight  and  could  not 
be  captured  ;  the  destruction  of  the  legions  under 
Crassus,  which  gave  rise  to  the  Roman  proverb, 
"  The  retreat  of  the  Parthians  was  more  to  be 
dreaded  than  the  advance  of  any  other  army  ; " 
down  to  the  burning  of  ^loscow  by  Rostopchin, 
which  resulted  in  the  annihilation  of  the  greatest 
army  and  the  greatest  captain  the  world  ever  saw  ; 
shows  that,  like  her  ancestors,  she  possesses  and  is 
ready  to  use  the  most  fatal  of  resources. 

But  the  military  strength  of  Russia  lies  not 
alone  in  this  negative  resource — which  will  ulti- 
mately prove  true  of  all  Asiatic  races — as  she 
surpasses  all  other  nations  in  the  extent  of  her 
armament.  Her  standing  army  is  computed  at 
1,500,000  to  2,000,000  of  men,  and  she  could 
quickh"  put  herself  on  a  war  footing  of  four  or 
five  millions  of  men  well  appointed  and  equipped. 
In  St.  Petersburg  alone  there  are  no  less  than 
100,000,  in  Moscow  150,000,  in  the  Crimea  150,000, 
in   Poland    160,000,   and   it   is    said    that  there  are 


4  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

also  a  quarter  of  a  million  in  the  Caucasus  alone, 
and  it  is  more  than  hinted  that  a  large  army  is 
even  now  quartered  in  Tibriz,  the  second  city  in 
Persia. 

As  by  act  of  1873  all  able-bodied  subjects  of  the 
empire  have  to  give  a  certain  number  of  years  of 
active  service  in  the  army,  one  can  form  some  idea 
of  what  a  vast  military  element  exists  among 
130,000,000  of  people,  and  which  could,  under  an 
emergency,  be  quickly  materialized  into  an  avail- 
able army. 

They  are,  moreover,  of  the  best  fighting  material 
in  the  world,  being  obedient,  patient,  subservient 
to  rule  and  discipline,  and  rugged  and  hardy,  un- 
equalled, perhaps,  by  any  other  race. 

When  looking  at  the  splendid  armies  one  sees 
everywhere,  one  does  not  wonder  at  Napoleon's 
saying  after  his  reverse  at  Moscow,  "  that  if  he  had 
an  army  of  Russians,  it  would  not  be  long  before 
the  universe  had  but  one  god  and  the  world  only 
one  emperor."  The  discomfiture  of  the  English  at 
Pekin  at  the  hands  of  Pavloff,  and  the  still  more 
recent  and  equally  humiliating  one  at  the  court  of 
Persia  by  the  Russian  minister  there,  shows  that 
Russia  is  as  skilful  and  powerful  in  diplomacy  as 
in  the  field.  Her  recent  appropriation  of  90  mil- 
lions of  dollars — making  over  300  millions  within 
a  few  years — for  the  building  of  iron-clads,  caused 


WESTERN    HEMISPHERE    FOR   AMERICANS    5 

England  to  hastily  revise  her  budget,  attended  with 
ugly  rumors  of  the  necessity  of  some  sort  of  con- 
scription. 

The  spectre  of  approaching  Russian  Asiatic 
domination,  with  its  sure  bearing  upon  India,  no 
doubt  has  led  to  the  recent  frantic  desire  of  Ene- 
land  for  alliances,  even  when  of  the  most  inconeru- 
ous  nature.  Our  own  country  has  a  destiny  apart 
from  all  other  nations,  and  I  hope  it  will  keep  clear 
of  all  those  complications  that  would  hamper  it  in 
its  right  growth  and  development.  No  nation  has 
ever  equalled  the  Americans  in  those  admirable 
qualities  so  necessary  for  the  settlement  and  de- 
velopment of  new  countries. 

This  is  our  special  province  and  our  appointed 
destiny,  and  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  alone 
there  will  be  for  all  time  an  ample  field  wherein  to 
exercise  our  choicest  energies  and  abilities.  If  we 
prove  true  to  ourselves  and  our  manifest  duties, 
and  allow  no  dissipation  of  our  energies  and  forces 
by  becoming  involved  in  the  intricate  affairs  of  re- 
mote countries,  but  confine  our  expansive  forces 
to  the  Western  Hemisphere,  we  will  quickly  build 
up  an  empire  second  to  none.  I  should  regret  to 
see  our  country  lose  its  "  free  hand  "  by  any  alliance 
which  in  these  days  of  growing  international  com- 
plications must  prove  entangling.  It  would  be  es- 
pecially undesirable  with  a  nation  under  whose  gen- 


6  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

tie  allurements  of  philanthropy  and  "  unrestricted 
trade,"  and  much  display  of  "unctuous  rectitude," 
there  too  often  lies  the  covert  desire  to  use  other 
people  in  the  accomplishment  of  her  selfish  aims. 

Excuse  this  digression.  I  set  out  to  simply 
write  you  of  my  Siberian  trip.  The  line  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railway  runs  in  a  general  way 
through  middle  European  Russia,  the  centre  of  the 
southern  part  of  Western  Siberia,  and  along  the 
southern  border  of  Eastern  Siberia.  Its  western 
terminus  is  Moscow,  and  in  the  east,  Madivostok 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  ditticult  to  determine 
its  exact  length,  as  the  recent  Russian-Chinese  rela- 
tions  that  have  sprung  up  have  caused  Russia  to 
chanee  the  orio-inal  route  down  the  Amur  River  in 
East  Siberia.  A  commission  has  recently  left  here 
to  make  a  new  survey  from  a  point  about  1,200 
miles  west  of  \"ladivostok,  with  the  intention  of 
radiating  from  that  point  several  lines  through 
Manchuria  eastward,  as  China  has  recently  given 
Russia  extensive  concessions  in  that  province. 
One  of  these  lines  will  run  direct  to  Vladivostok 
through  Manchuria,  and,  joining  with  the  main 
line  from  Moscow,  will  thus  make  a  much  shorter 
route  than  the  one  originally  designed  to  run  down 
the  Amur  River,  of  which  nearly  1,000  miles  is  now 
completed.  Even  under  the  new  survey  the  line 
will  not  be  less  than  6,100  miles  long. 


SIBERIAN    RAILWAY    TRAIN 


7 


There   is   now  completed   about  4,000  miles   of 
road  from   Moscow  east,  on  which  trains  are  run- 


TRANS-SIBERIAX    RAILWAY    TRAIN. — OBSERVATION    COMPARTMENT    IN 
REAR    CAR 

ning-.  On  the  last  1,000  miles,  however,  only  con- 
struction trains  are  running,  with  an  occasional 
mixed  passenger  train  at  intervals  of  about  a  fort- 


8  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

night.  In  the  last  six  weeks  they  have  put  on  a 
throuofh  train  that  runs  from  Moscow  to  Tomsk, 
on  the  Tom  River.  This  train  leaves  once  in  ten 
days  and  furnishes  fairly  comfortable  facilities. 
Ordinary  trains  that  break  the  journey  at  many 
points  run  also,  at  irregular  intervals,  as  far  as 
Omsk.  The  distance  from  Moscow  to  Tomsk  is 
about  3,000  miles.  It  is  the  through  train  that  I 
am  taking.  Whatever  expeditions  I  make  east  of 
Tomsk  will  have  to  be  done  on  construction  trains, 
or  over  the  old  Siberian  post-route  by  troikas  or 
droshkies — curious  vehicles  drawn  by  three  or  five 
horses. 

It  is  most  difficult  to  get  anything  like  accurate 
information  concerning  either  this  great  line  or  the 
country  along  the  road  east  of  the  Volga  River,  as 
few  travellers  as  yet  have  gone  into  that  region. 
Judging,  however,  from  what  I  see  here  at  the 
western  terminus  of  the  road,  everything  is  being 
done  in  the  most  thorough  manner,  and  indicates 
that  the  Russian  is  fully  alive  to  the  great  value 
this  road  will  be  to  the  Empire,  and  the  marvellous 
changes  to  be  wrought  by  it. 

The  station  here,  at  which  the  line  begins,  is  a 
marvel  of  architecture.  Next  to  that  of  the  Grand 
India  Peninsular  Railroad  in  Bombay,  it  is  the 
most  splendid  railway  station  I  have  ever  seen.  In 
its  features,  it  furnishes  additional  evidence  of  what 


MAGNIFICENCE    OF   TRAINS  9 

you  discover  on  all  hands  as  you  go  eastward,  of 
the  fusion  of  things  Occidental  and  Oriental.  In 
this  structure  the  bizarre  effect  produced  by  the 
blending  of  the  plain,  practical  materiality  of  the 
West  with  the  florid  idealism  of  the  East  is  at 
once  surprising  and  charming.  It  is  more  like  a 
palace  than  a  railway  station. 

The  Government  (for  almost  all  railways  here 
are  run  by  the  Government)  is  most  active  in  its 
preparations  for  the  future  operation  of  the  road. 
I  was  shown  a  train  in  course  of  preparation  that 
is  to  be  one  of  the  many  that  are  to  run  over  the 
entire  length  of  the  line  when  completed.  The 
scale  of  magnificence  upon  which  they  are  to  be 
operated  is  a  surprise  even  to  one  familiar  with 
the  splendor  of  our  own  metropolitan  trains. 

The  trains  will  be  composed  wholly  of  sleep- 
ing, parlor,  and  dining  cars,  an  elegant  salon  occu- 
pying fully  one-half  of  each  car  at  the  middle, 
having  piano,  writing-tables,  maps,  library,  etc. 
Besides  the  usual  toilet-room  there  is  an  elegant 
bath-room,  where  at  a  small  cost  we  can  have  a 
warm  or  cold  bath.  There  is  also  to  be  a  room 
fitted  up  especially  for  gymnastic  exercise,  with 
dumb-bells,  frictional  apparatus  for  muscular  de- 
velopment, and  all  the  newest  belongings  of  such 
an  establishment.  The  trains  will  be  of  the  ves- 
tibule type,   with    electric   lights   and   signals,   air 


lo  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

brakes,  and  other  first-class  accessories.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  general  director  of  the  train,  each  car 
has  for  its  service  a  porter  and  a  special  guard,  so 
that  a  train  of  seven  or  eight  passenger  coaches 
will  have  from  twenty  to  thirty  officials  and  em- 
ployees connected  with  it.  In  fine,  when  once  in 
full  operation,  the\-  will,  in  luxury  and  comfort, 
more  resemble  a  trans-Atlantic  steamship  than  a 
trans-Asiatic  railway  train. 

The  compartments,  on  account  of  extreme 
height  and  size,  will  have  an  airy  comfort  quite 
in  aofreeable  contrast  with  the  low  ceilincrs  and 
stuffy  character  of  many  of  our  first-class  cars. 
Not  least  of  the  inspiring  things  of  this  great 
enterprise  is  the  low  fare  that  will  be  charged, 
being  less  than  one  cent  and  a  half  per  mile, 
including  expense  of  sleeping-car.  As  the 
through  trains  can  be  run  at  thirty  to  thirt)'- 
four  miles  per  hour,  the  trip  from  Moscow  to 
Vladivostok  will  ultimately  be  made  in  eight  to 
nine  days.  It  is  not  among  the  improbable 
thinofs  that  within  ten  vears  one  can  make  a  con- 
tinuous  trip  from  Paris  to  Pekin,  a  distance  of 
something  over  8,000  miles. 

If  this  route  does  not  become  the  most  interest- 
ins^  and  aofreeable  in  the  world,  it  will  not  be  the 
fault  of  the  Russian  government.  One  can  form 
some  feeble  notion   of  the  vast  future  possibilities 


TRAVEL    ON    POST-ROUTES  13 

when  we  reflect  that  it  is  the  connectinof  Hnk 
between  500  milHons  of  people  in  the  east  and 
300  millions  in  the  west.  It  is  my  intention  to 
go  to  Irkutsk,  and  also  to  Tobolsk,  if  the  journey 
by  the  old  post-route  does  not  prove  too  fatigu- 
ing. Post  travel  is  anything  but  a  luxury  in 
Russia.  Although  the  roads  on  the  main  routes 
are  excellent,  almost  equal  to  those  in  France, 
the  troikas  are  much  wanting  in  comfort,  and  the 
Isvoshtchik  is  a  furious  driver  and  the  horses 
are  spirited. 

They  usually  have  from  three  to  five  horses, 
according  to  condition  of  road,  and  hitched 
abreast.  The  posts  are  about  eighteen  versts — 
twelve  miles — apart,  where  relays  are  secured. 
When  ready  to  start,  the  driver  takes  the  lines 
in  his  hands,  and  scarcely  touches  his  seat  when 
the  horses  suddenly  spring  into  a  full  gallop, 
which  pace  they  keep  right  up  until  the  next  post 
is  reached.  A  distance  of  200  miles  can  thus 
readily  be  covered  in  a  day  ;  that  is,  in  a  day  and 
night.  The  driver,  however,  is  a  lazy  fellow,  and 
a  vast  amount  of  time  is  needlessly  wasted  in  the 
change  of  horses.  Were  it  not  for  this  delay,  250 
miles  or  more  might  easily  be  made.  I  am  told 
that  in  some  cases  militar)-  and  other  officials 
make  over  300  miles  in  a  day  on  sledges  in  the 
winter. 


14 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Speaking  of  horses,  there  is  a  notable  law  in 
effect  in  most  of  the  large  Russian  towns  concern- 
ing them,  that  deserves  especial  mention.  Among 
the  curious  things  that  arrest  the  attention  on  ar- 
riving in  Moscow,  is  the  entire   absence   of  whips 


RUSSIAN    ISVOSHTCHIK,    OR    DROSHKY    DRIVERS 


amonof  the  drivers  of  carria^'es,  cabs,  and  all  sorts 
of  vehicles.  On  inquiry,  I  was  informed  that  there 
was  a  law  prohibiting  their  use  or  in  any  wa)'  pun- 
ishing; a  horse.  I  don't  believe  there  is  a  sinQ;le 
whip  in  use  in  Moscow.  Even  to  strike  a  horse 
with  a  catch  of  the  lines  is  forbidden,  and  punished 


THE    HORSES    OF    RUSSIA  17 

if  discovered.  The  excellent  condition  of  the 
horses  fully  attests  the  benefits  of  this  humane  law. 
Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  the  sleek  and 
well-o-roomed  horses  used  in  the  carriaees  of 
Moscow. 

I  have  succeeded  in  securing  the  services  of  an 
excellent  valet.  He  is  a  Caucasian,  a  native  of 
Tiflis.  His  native  language  is  Russian,  but  he 
speaks  English  quite  well,  as  also  French,  German, 
Italian,  Swedish,  Tartar,  and  almost  every  thing- 
else.  Although  he  has  never  been  to  Siberia,  still 
his  knowledge  of  the  country  and  its  customs  will 
render  him  most  useful  to  me.  I  will  write  you 
again  when  I  get  beyond  the  Volga  River  and 
Ural  Mountains,  where  the  novel  attractions  of 
Asiatic  Russia  really  begin. 

3 


II 


The  Russian  steppes — Their  similarity  to  the  prairies  and  plains  of 
the  United  States — The  lands  of  Russia — Geological  division 
of  the  same — The  great  Tschernoziom  lands  of  Russia — Their 
capacity  and  products — System  of  farming  in  Russia — The 
yearly  production  of  cereals^Exports  of  same — Russian  live 
stock  and  emport  statistics — Manufacturing  and  mining  indus- 
tries— Culture  of  Indian  corn — Population  of  Russia — Distribu- 
tion of  same — The  rural  and  url^an  population  of  Russia — 
Dwellings  and  other  buildings  in  the  villages. 

TSCHELJABINSK,    SIBERIA,  AugllSt^   18S9. 

I  am  writing- you  from  Tscheljabinsk(  pronounced 
(/  Chee-lay-ah-binsk),  a  small  but  interesting  and  pic- 
turesque town  100  miles  east  of  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, and  about  1,400  miles  east  of  Moscow.  The 
route  I  have  come,  therefore,  is  much  the  same  as 
going  from  Indianapolis  to  Denver. 

Not  only  in  distance  does  the  comparison  hold, 
but  in  a  striking  manner  in  a  geographic  and  physi- 
cal sense  also.  To  all  Americans  who  have  travelled 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains  through  the  States  of 
Illinois,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska, 
the  countrv  I  have  come  through  is  easv  to  de- 
scribe.      To  simply  say  it  is  exactly  like  it  would 


TSCHERNOZIOM    LANDS  19 

constitute  a  more  or  less  perfect  description.  In- 
deed, I  have  never  seen  any  two  things  more  abso- 
hitely  similar  than  are  the  prairie  and  plain  regions 
of  our  country  and  that  \ast  region  h'ing  in  south- 
east Russia,  extending  from  Tula  east  to  the  Ural 
Mountains,  a  distance  of  over  1,000  miles,  and  from 
Nijni  Novgorod  south  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  a  dis- 
tance of  1,200  miles.  It  is  called  by  the  Russians 
Tschernoziom,  or  black  earth.  It  is  also  known  as 
the  steppe,  which  is  Russian  for  prairie.  The  soil 
is  black,  and  seems  identical  with  that  of  Illinois 
and  Iowa,  although,  I  think,  somewhat  stronger 
than  in  those  States. 

To  generalize  crudely,  the  lands  of  Russia 
would  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  the  woodland, 
covering  the  northern  part  and  composed  of  the 
rouofher  elements  or  detritus  of  the  ancient  orlacier 
that  once  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Russia, 
and  by  whose  action  its  varied  soils  were  pro- 
duced ;  and  the  Tschernoziom,  covering  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  southern  half  of  the  country. 

The  first  is  covered  mainly  with  forests,  marshes, 
and  sand  wastes,  although  interspersed  with  many 
deposits  of  vegetable  mould,  giving  more  or  less  im- 
portant areas  for  culture.  The  Tschernoziom  region 
is  almost  coincident  with  that  of  the  steppe.  It 
extends  in  a  northeastern  direction  over  thirt)- 
or  forty  of  the  largest  provinces  of   Russia,  from 


20  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

Podolia  and  Bessarabia  in  the  southwest,  to  Ufa 
and  the  Urals  in  the  east,  and  from  the  Blaclv 
Sea  to  Moscow. 

This  formation  is  of  surpassing  fertihty,  and 
within  its  Hmits  the  greater  portion  of  the  nation's 
agricultural  surplus  is  produced.  It  covers  an  area 
of  something  like  300  millions  of  acres,  and  in  its 
productive  capacity  must  exceed  that  of  the  other 
lands  in  European  Russia. 

Spring  wheat,  rye,  oats— indeed,  all  the  cereals 
ofrow  here  in  the  most  wonderful  manner  in  a  fair 
season,  and  every  acre  is  under  a  good  state  of 
cultivation. 

The  system  of  farming  practised  throughout  the 
Tschernoziom  region  and  much  in  vogue  in  the 
steppe  formations  generally,  such  as  the  Kuban  and 
Don  Cossack  reofions  in  southern  \  olora  districts 
and  the  northern  Caucasus,  is  what  is  known  as 
the  resting  system.  It  is  simply  the  alternation 
of  cereal  crops  at  stated  intervals  with  pasturage. 
By  giving  up  the  lands  to  pasture  that  have  been 
cropped  for  several  years  with  various  grains,  the 
soil  recuperates  naturally  without  much  aid  of  arti- 
ficial fertilizers.  It  is  practically  the  same  method 
followed  by  many  of  our  own  farmers,  and  known 
as  converting  cultivated  fields  into  fallow  lands. 

There  will  therefore  be  found,  throughout  great 
areas,  many  open  fields  devoted  to  grazing,   and 


AGRICULTURAL    PRODUCTS  21 

supporting-  great  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and 
other  domestic  animals,  interspersed  among  fields 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  rye,  wheat,  oats,  spelt, 
and  other  cereals. 

A  few  statistics  as  to  what  Russia  is  producing 
in  the  way  of  grains,  while  they  may  not  prove  in- 
teresting, may  at  least  be  instructive.  In  1893-94, 
in  the  fifty  governments  of  European  Russia — not 
including  Finland  and  Poland — there  was  a  little 
over  24,000,000  of  desetines,  or  about  65,000,000 
acres,  given  to  rye,  which  in  this  country  ranks 
as  of  first  importance,  and  constitutes  the  main 
article  of  food  consumed  by  the  masses,  especially 
the  peasantry.  This  will  serve  to  explain  why  so 
large  a  proportion  of  a  relatively  small  wheat 
crop  is  exported  to  foreign  markets. 

Just  here  it  may  be  well  to  take  some  note  of 
Russia's  grain  shipments  to  foreign  countries. 
During  the  six  years  from  1888  to  1893  inclusive, 
which  also  embraces  the  famine  year  of  1890-91, 
her  exports  of  all  grains  amounted  to  an  annual 
average  of  380,000,000  pouds,  or  nearly  220,000,- 
000  bushels.  Of  this  total,  320,000,000  pouds,  or 
a  little  over  200,000,000  bushels,  was  made  up  of 
the  four  great  cereal  staples — wheat,  rye,  barley, 
and  oats ;  wheat  alone  accounts  for  an  annual 
average  during  those  years  of  150,000,000  pouds, 
or  90,000,000  bushels  ;  oats,    58,000,000  bushels  ; 


22  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

barley,  40,000,000  bushels,  and  rye,  41,000,000 
bushels.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  estimatine 
by  weight,  wheat  constituted  during  those  years 
almost  half  of  the  gross  grain  exports.  The  total 
value  of  Russia's  entire  annual  exports  and  imports 
is  about  $700,000,000,  and  the  value  of  her  exports 
exceeds  that  of  her  imports  by  about  $150,000,000 
per  annum. 

The  outturn  of  rye  for  1893-94  was  nearly  700,- 
000,000  bushels.  Of  the  lands  given  to  this  crop, 
I  might  add  that  nearly  19,000,000  desetines,  or 
about  three-fourths,  belong  to  the  peasants,  and 
the  remaining  5,000,000  to  the  large  landed  pro- 
prietors. Both  spring  and  Avinter  wheats  are  cul- 
tivated, the  latter  mainly  in  the  southern  and 
southeastern  governments,  and  the  former  in  the 
western  portion  and  the  higher  latitudes.  They 
are,  moreover,  produced  in  the  proportion  of  about 
six  acres  of  the  former  to  three  of  the  latter. 

In  1893-94  there  were  240,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat  produced,  of  which  the  peasants  are  accred- 
ited with  the  usual  proportion  of  six-tenths.  Oats 
were  cultivated  to  the  extent  of  36,000,000  acres, 
with  a  yield  of  nearly  600,000,000  bushels.  The 
yield  of  barley  was  136,000,000  bushels,  and  of 
buckwheat  60,000,000  bushels.  Besides,  some 
40,000,000  acres  were  devoted  to  other  cereals, 
such  as  millet,  pease,  spelt,  potatoes,  etc. 


BEET    CULTURE   AND    LIVE    STOCK        23 

It  might  also  be  mentioned  as  an  important 
feature  in  the  agriculture  of  this  country  that  the 
beet-sugar  industry  is  a  large  and  rapidly  growing 
one.  In  1893  there  were  800,000  acres  under 
beets,  yielding  35,000,000  pouds,  or  about  600,000 
tons  of  sugar.  To  manufacture  this  there  were,  at 
that  time,  230  factories  in  Russia,  employing  some 
90,000  persons. 

There  were  in  Russia  in  1893,  26,000,000  horses, 
over  34,000,000  cattle,  65,000,000  sheep,  and  over 
12,000,000  swine.  The  dairy  interest  is  large, 
widely  diffused,  and  rapidly  growing.  Beside,  sup- 
plying almost  incalculable  quantities  for  home 
consumption,  butter,  cheese,  and  other  products 
of  this  industry  are  extensively  exported.  From 
1886  to  1893  the  annual  average  exportation  was, 
of  cheese  nearly  3,000,000  pounds,  and  of  butter 
16,000,000  pounds. 

Live  stock  is  an  important  article  of  export, 
and  of  wool  there  is  an  annual  exportation  of 
70,000,000  pounds.  It  may  not  be  an  unin- 
teresting fact  to  mention  that  of  the  rather  insig- 
nificant item  of  hogs'  bristles  over  6,000,000 
pounds   are  sent  to  foreign   countries  yearly. 

Having  given  somewhat  in  detail  the  agricul- 
tural capabilities  and  products  of  Russia,  it  may 
be  well  to  here  present  briefly,  in  so  far  as  avail- 
able  statistics  may  disclose,  what   she  is  doing  in 


24  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

the  way  of  manufacturing.  In  1892,  there  were 
in  Russia  34,680  manufactories,  employing-  nearly 
1,500,000  operatives  and  workmen,  producing 
about  $800,000,000  worth  of  products,  or  an 
annual  output  of  $550  for  each  workman. 

Of  this  number  there  were  2,350  manufactories 
engaged  in  producing  cotton,  linen,  woollen,  and 
kindred  fabrics,  and  employing  425,200  operatives. 
Nearly  3,000  factories  were  engaged  in  making 
leather  goods.  Of  flour,  starch,  malt,  wool,  saw- 
mills, and  others  of  like  nature,  there  were  8,150, 
employing  80,000  operatives.  Of  cast-iron  there 
were  produced  in  1890  about  1,200,000  tons, 
employing  233,000  workmen.  There  were  1,881 
manufactories  and  mills  engaged  in  producing 
iron,  steel,  machinery,  and  other  metal  products, 
employing  118,000  workmen,  with  an  annual 
turnover  of  about  $100,000,000.  In  nearly  2,000 
mines  (gold,  copper,  platinum,  silver,  lead,  tin, 
and  other  metals),  there  were  employed  106,000 
workmen. 

The  flax  and  hemp  products  of  Russia  merit 
especial  mention,  since  it  easily  ranks  the  rest  of 
the  world  in  this  important  industry.  In  1890- 
91  the  entire  world's  crop  of  flax  fibre  was  1,102,- 
600,000  pounds.  Of  this  total  Russia  produced 
630,000,000  of  pounds,  or  nearly  sixty  per  cent. 
In  that  year  Russia  produced   306,400,000  pounds 


PRODUCTION    OF    FLAX   AND    HEMP       25 

of  hemp  fibre,  or  near  forty  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
European  crop. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  of  these  two  valuable 
staples  Russia  is  to  be  credited  with  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  world's  product.  Of  this  amount  she 
gathers  yearly,  about  one-third  is  consumed  in  her 
own  mills,  and  in  this  branch  of  manufacturinor 
she  stands  second  only  to  Great  Britain,  having 
in  operation  420,000  spindles  and  13,000  looms, 
or  more  than  one-third  of  those  in  operation  in 
the  United  Kinofdom,  and  somewhat  in  excess  of 
either  France,  Germany,  Italy,  or  other  European 
states.  Her  exports  of  flax  and  hemp  fibre  are 
over  500,000,000  pounds  annually. 

Without  a  moment's  intermission,  you  see  on  all 
hands  the  landscape  stretching  away  in  intermi- 
nable prairies  and  rolling  plains.  As  in  our  own 
countrv,  it  is  traversed  bv  a  few  larpfe  rivers  and 
many  small  streams,  and  by  those  peculiar  western 
gullies  or  draws,  fringed  with  shrubbery. 

On  looking  out  of  the  car  window,  were  it  not 
for  the  quaint  appearance  of  the  people,  with  their 
queer,  particolored  costumes,  the  Saracenic  aspect 
imparted  by  the  mosque-like  churches,  with  their 
rich  coloring  and  gilded  domes,  that  dot  the  land- 
scape everywhere,  one  would  think  he  was  in 
Illinois  or  Nebraska.  The  land,  like  our  western 
plains,  supports  a  rich  herbage,  and  is  covered  with 


26  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

great  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  etc.  While 
the  cattle  are  neither  so  laro^e  nor  well  bred  as  in 
America,  still  they  furnish  an  excellent  beef ;  in 
fact,  I  never  ate  a  finer  beefsteak  than  you  will 
get  along  the  route  at  the  hotels  and  railway 
restaurants. 

To  an  American,  the  one  great  difference  be- 
tween this  and  the  great  West  is  the  conspicuous 
absence  of  Indian  corn.  As  this  is  about  latitude 
fifty-six  degrees,  being  nearly  i,ooo  miles  north  of 
the  Ohio  River,  it  will  not  mature  here,  but  in 
South  Russia  and  the  Caucasus  it  f^rows  and 
matures  quite  as  well  as  in  America. 

The  area  of  Indian  corn  in  Russia  proper  is 
given  at  only  a  little  over  1,000,000  acres,  with 
a  production  of^^  18,000,000  bushels.  This  is, 
however,  confined  to  a  small  extent  of  country 
closely  bordering  on  the  Black  Sea.  In  the 
northern  Caucasus,  however,  and  the  western  part 
of  the  trans-Caucasian  region,  immense  quantities 
are  grown,  and  yield  a  large  surplus  for  foreign 
markets. 

The  distribution  of  population  in  Russia  is  some- 
what peculiar.  As  I  have  before  said,  nearly  nine- 
tenths  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture, 
and  only  from  ten  per  cent,  to  fourteen  per  cent, 
live  in  the  cities. 

In  1893,  out  of  a  total  population   in   European 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    POPULATION 


29 


Russia  of  91,800,000,  including  the  governments 
of  Finland  and  Poland,  about  80,000,000  were  resi- 
dents of  the  country  and  only  12,000,000  lived  in 
the   cities.      In    Asiatic   Russia   (Siberia,  the    Cau- 


RUSSIAN    PEASANT  S    LOG    CABIN    IN    COMMUNE    OR    VILLAGE 


casus,  and  Central  Asia),  even  a  more  marked  dis- 
proportion exists,  as  out  of  a  total  population  of 
18,000,000  in  those  countries,  less  than  2,000,000 
were  dwellers  in  the  cities. 


30 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


There  are  a  few  grand  cities  like  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  Warsaw^,  and  Odessa,  with  from  250,000 
to  over  1,000,000  inhabitants  ;  then  there  are  quite 
a   number   of    cities   of    40,000   to    150,000  inhab- 


A    \'II.I,At:E    ON    THE    RUSSIAN    STEPPES 

itants ;  after  that,  there  are  none  that  possess  the 
features  of  a  great  cit)-,  or  that  can  be  classed  as 
such.  The  rest  of  the  population  is  wholly  con- 
tained in  farm  villages  or  communes  of  from  50 
to    300  or  400    families    (as    the    Russian    farmer 


PEASANT    DWELLINGS  31 

rarely  lives  on  his  farm),  scattered  in  immense 
numbers  throughout  the  country.  It  is  not  an 
uncommon  thino-  that  a  dozen  of  these  villaQ^es 
are  in  sight  at  one  time. 

The  buildings  of  these  villages  are  mostly  of 
wood  and  thatched.  Many  of  them  are  made  of 
of  logs  and  much  resemble  the  primitive  log  cabin 
the  West.  Being,  however,  more  ornate  in  ex- 
terior finish,  and  in  contour  resembling  very  much 
the  Swiss  chalet,  they  often  have  a  pleasing  effect. 
There  invariably  rises  out  of  the  midst  of  these 
villages  an  imposing  church  edifice,  always  of  the 
Greek  Church,  most  beautiful  in  its  exquisite  pro- 
portions and  rich  coloring. 


Ill 


Emancipation  of  the  serfs — Peasants  now  great  land-owners — 
Emancipation  rescript  of  Alexander  II.,  in  1861 — Condition 
of  the  serfs  prior  to  this  act — General  provisions  of  emanci- 
pation rescript — Obligatory  redemption  of  lands — Measures  to 
facilitate  same — Distribution  and  allotment  of  lands  to  the  serfs 
— Division  of  serfs  into  three  categories — Effects  of  emancipa- 
tion act — Its  tendency  to  lessen  conflict  between  capital  and 
labor — Devotion  of  the  peasant  to  his  lot  acquired  by  this  act — 
An  impediment  to  emigration  to  Siberia  and  other  distant  lands 
— Russia's  position  in  the  probable  clash  of  nations — Number 
of  serfs  liberated  under  the  emancipation  act — Date  of  the  proc- 
lamation— -The  peaceful  accomplishment  of  this  great  act — 
Peace  rescript  of  the  present  Czar — Is  Russia  rightly  understood 
by  other  nations  ? 

In  no  country,  perhaps,  not  even  excepting 
France,  where  the  desire  to  possess  land  assumes 
almost  the  form  of  a  mania,  is  there  to  be  found  a 
class  so  supremely  a  land-owning  class  as  the  peas- 
antry of  Russia.  Excluding  a  few  provinces  in 
Finland,  Poland,  and  the  Baltic,  it  is  rare  to  find 
among  the  peasants  of  this  country  one  who 
does  not  possess  a  lot  or  tract  of  land  of  some  size, 
somewhere  in  the  circle  of  the  empire.  Indeed,  it 
is  said  that  even  the  artisans  and  laborers  in  the 
towns  and  villages  are  almost  invariably  the  owners 


EMANCIPATION    ACT    OF    ALEXANDER   II    33 

of  a  plot  of  land,  sometimes  even  in  remote  quar- 
ters of  Russia,  m^.l-  Q^oW 

This  fact  constitutes  one  of  the  impediments  to 
a  more  rapid  and  general  development  of  the  man- 
ufacturing and  industrial  interests  of  Russia.  The 
agricultural  element  so  vastly  predominating  over 
the  urban,  necessitates  a  reliance  upon  the  rural 
population  to  supply  the  needed  labor  in  the  facto- 
ries. The  devotion  of  the  peasant  to  his  humble 
holding  of  land,  to  which  he  invariably  returns  at 
stated  seasons  to  cultivate,  thus  abandoning  his 
position  as  an  artisan,  prevents  that  permanent 
organization  of  labor  so  needful  to  secure  success 
in  manufacturing  and  commercial  enterprises. 

This  exceptional  feature  of  peasant  life  finds,  in 
some  measure,  a  solution  in  the  condition  of  this 
class  prior  to  the  emancipation  act  of  Alexander 
II.  in  1861. 

Previous  to  that  great  epoch  the  peasants  were 
entirely  the  serfs  of  either  the  state,  the  crown,  or 
the  nobility,  to  whom  they  stood  in  a  relation  of 
the  closest  personal  dependence.  Of  the  whole 
peasant  or  serf  class,  there  was,  at  that  time,  some- 
thing like  11,000,000  families,  of  which  about 
forty-six  per  cent,  belonged  respectively  each  to 
the  state  and  the  nobility — or  private  persons — 
and  about  eight  per  cent,  to  the  crown.  Those 
who  lived  on  the  lands  of  the  nobility  were  usually 
3 


34  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

permitted  to  cultivate  a  tract  of  land  at  their  own 
expense,  out  of  which  they  derived  their  subsist- 
ence, and  it  became  known  as  the  peasant  lot. 
Beyond  this  necessary  labor,  he  was  bound  to  work 
under  the  direction,  control,  and  for  the  sole  benefit 
of  the  landlord,  who  possessed  the  legal  right, 
under  vague  limitations,  to  dispose  of  the  person 
and  property  of  the  peasant.  Thus,  by  the  sanc- 
tion of  custom  and  long  usage,  there  dawned  that 
first  peasant  proprietary  right  or  usufruct,  which 
under  the  benign  rescript  of  1861  suddenly  bright- 
ened into  the  full  da}'  of  individual  freedom  and 
property  right.  By  this  act  of  emancipation,  not 
only  was  the  obligatory  relation  of  dependence  of 
peasant  to  owner  absolved,  but  it  also  provided  for 
a  compulsory  redemption  of  the  lands  of  the  no- 
bility or  private  owners  occupied  under  the  former 
shadowy  rights  of  the  peasants.  Not  at  once, 
however,  were  these  lands  redeemed,  as  by  an 
agreement  between  the  interested  parties  the 
peasants  were  allowed  to  occupy  their  former 
holdings  of  the  lands  of  their  old  masters  by  the 
payment  of  an  annual  rental,  which  land  the  gov- 
ernment apportioned  to  them,  becoming  inalien- 
able. 

The  same  arrangement  was  made  respecting  the 
peasants  that  belonged  to  the  state  and  the  crown, 
except  that  such  peasants  were  not  obliged,  under 


REDEMPTION    OF    LANDS  35 

the  proclamation,  to  begin  the  redemption  of  their 
lands  until  1885,  while  for  those  peasants  who  were 
the  property  of  private  parties  the  date  was  fixed 
at  1 88 1.  To  carry  into  practical  effect  this  obliga- 
tory redemption  of  lands,  the  government  issued 
its  bonds  to  the  old  land-owners  to  an  amount  es- 
timated on  the  rental  value  of  the  lands.  This 
debt  was  to  be  liquidated  by  the  peasants  in  the 
course  of  forty-nine  years,  by  annual  instalments 
of  principal  and  interest. 

To  facilitate  this  redemption  measure,  state 
peasant  banks  were  founded,  which  loaned  money 
to  the  peasants  on  easy  terms,  taking  a  mortgage 
on  the  lands  as  a  security.  It  might  be  further 
stated  that  the  lands  were  allotted  to  the  males 
only,  and  without  regard  to  age,  and  largely  to 
the  communes,  which  were  at  the  same  time  griven 
the  amplest  powers  of  local  self-government. 

To  aid  in  forming  some  just  idea  of  the  scope  of 
this  memorable  act,  and  the  stupendous  changes 
wrought  by  it,  I  will  briefly  collate  a  few  facts  and 
figures  that  of^cial  statistics  supply.  For  conveni- 
ence, I  will  divide  the  lands  that  passed  under  this 
proclamation  into  three  classes  or  groups,  viz.  : 
those  that  comprise  holdings  from  two  to  seven 
acres,  those  from  seven  to  seventeen  acres,  and 
those  from  eighteen  to  over  forty  acres. 

We  find  that  an  allotment  of  lands  from  two  to 


36  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

seven  acres  was  made  to  6,280,000  males,  aggre- 
gating in  the  total  37,800,000  acres.  Of  this  num- 
ber of  peasants,  4,833,300  were  formerly  those 
belonging  to  private  parties,  and  the  remainder, 
1,447,000,  those  belonging  to  the  crown  and  the 
state.  Out  of  the  total  allotment  of  37,800,000 
acres,  27,800,000  acres  went  to  the  peasants  for- 
merly belonging  to  private  parties,  averaging  about 
five  and  a  half  acres  per  male,  while  10,000,000 
acres  went  to  the  former  peasants  of  the  crown 
and  state,  averaging  nearly  seven  acres  per  male. 
For  the  second  class — that  is,  allotments  of  seven 
to  seventeen  acres — there  was  granted  154,171,800 
acres,  distributed  among  12,400,000  males,  or  an 
average  of  12.4  acres  per  capita.  Of  the  total 
number  of  serfs  who  fell  within  this  group  under 
this  class,  5,572,200  were  those  that  belonged  to 
private  parties,  and  6,830,000  that  were  owned 
by  the  crown  and  the  state.  To  the  former  were 
allotted  64,320,200  acres,  or  nearly  twelve  acres 
per  capita,  and  to  the  latter  nearly  90,000,000 
acres,  or  a  per  capita  holding  of  about  thirteen 
acres.  In  the  third  class — from  eighteen  to  over 
forty  acres — we  find  there  were  3,714,390  males, 
and  an  aggregate  of  124,979,000  acres,  or  33.4  per 
male.  Of  the  total  serf  or  private  class  in  this 
group,  3,369,600  were  owned  by  the  state  and  the 
crown,  to    whom    was    alloted    115,979,000    acres. 


LAND    ALLOTTED    TO    SERFS  37 

or  an  average  of  thirty-four  acres  to  each  male. 
The  peasants  that  had  been  held  by  private 
parties  in  this  class  were  344,796,  to  whom  were 
granted  8,666,000  acres,  or  nearly  twenty-five 
acres  as  an  average  to  each  male. 

To  summarize,  we  find  that  there  was  a  male 
population  of  something  over  22,000.000,  to  whom 
under  the  rescript  of  1861  there  were  allotted 
316,200,000  acres,  or  an  average  of  nearly  fifteen 
acres  for  each.  Of  the  grand  total  of  serfs 
manumitted  by  that  act,  10,800,000,  or  nearly 
one-half,  were  those  of  private  owners.  The  other 
half,  excepting  the  small  number  owned  by  the 
church  and  monasteries,  was  the  property  of  the 
state  and  the  crown. 

The  lands,  therefore,  for  the  obligatory  redemp- 
tion of  which  the  government  provided  by  the 
issuance  of  its  bonds,  amounted  to  a  trifle  over 
100.000,000  acres,  or  somewhat  less  than  one- 
third  of  all  the  lands  transferred  by  this  act,  being 
an  average  of  a  little  less  than  ten  acres  per 
capita.  There  were,  therefore,  left  of  the  state 
and  crown  lands  about  215,000,000  acres,  to  be 
apportioned  among  something  over  11,000,000 
holdings,  or  about  twenty  acres  per  capita. 

Very  naturally,  some  notable  results  followed 
a  change  in  condition  so  fundamental  and  at  the 
same   time   so   rapid,  and   it   speaks    well    for    the 


38  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

sterling  qualities  and  character  of  this  great 
class  that  a  transformation  so  swift  and  radical 
carried  with  it  so  little  confusion  and  disorder. 
The  usual  desire  to  accumulate  speedily  grew 
up  among  a  people  who  hitherto  were  without 
property,  when  they  found  themselves  suddenly 
endowed  with  such  a  substantial  evidence  of 
wealth  as  land.  As  a  result,  the  peasantry  of 
Russia,  since  the  act  of  1861,  have  added  by 
purchase  to  their  holdings  acquired  under  that 
act,  over  50,000,000  acres,  so  that  they  now  hold 
some  370,000,000  acres,  or,  as  before  stated, 
over  one-third  of  the  arable  acreage  of  European 
Russia. 

One  of  the  direct  results  of  this  newly  created 
and  extensive  ownership  of  lands  is  that  the  con- 
flict between  capital  and  labor  exists  to  a  less 
degree  in  this  country,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other. 
As  the  land  acquired  by  the  peasant  is  as  a  rule 
not  sufficient  in  itself  to  consume  his  whole  labor 
or  yield  a  full  support  to  himself  and  family,  he 
is  therefore  compelled  to  repair  this  deficiency 
by  seeking  service  under  the  owner  of  a  larger 
estate,  in  some  factory  or  other  occupation. 

Having  become  a  land-owner  himself,  however, 
and  therefore  receiving  in  some  degree  a  reward 
for  his  labor  through  his  own  capital,  he  thus 
stands  in  quite  a  different  relation  to  one  whose 


MIGRATORY    MOVEMENTS    OF    PEASANTS     39 

employment  he  seeks,  than  the  laborer  who 
derives  his  reward  for  services  wholly  from  the 
capital  of  another.  This  necessity  on  the  part 
of  the  peasant  to  supplement  the  labor  on  his 
own  insufficient  tract  of  land  by  employment 
elsewhere,  causes  a  movement  amono-  the  rural 
classes  which,  if  not  riy-htly  understood,  mieht 
lead  to  a  very  erroneous   impression. 

The  almost  incredible  number  of  peasants  that 
one  meets  on  all  lines  of  travel  in  this  country 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  they  were  a  very  uneasy,  shifting, 
and  discontented  class.  But  this  is  not  true,  since 
almost  the  entire  migratory  movements  of  this 
class  arise  out  of  a  quest  for  emplo)'ment  else- 
where than  on  their  own  inadequate  lot  or  tract 
of  land,  to  which  they  invariably  return  with 
punctual  regularity  at  certain  times  and  seasons, 
as  they  are  devoted  to  their  little  lot  of  land, 
and  they  allow  nothing  to  separate  them  for  long 
from  it.  Even  when  some  poor  peasant — as  it 
often  occurs — acquires  wealth  in  some  distant 
place  as  a  merchant,  or  in  other  pursuits,  and 
becomes  the  owner  of  buildings  and  other  prop- 
erty in  a  city,  he  invariably  retains  his  member- 
ship in  the  commune  from  whence  he  came,  and 
he  clings  to  his  little  holding  of  land  there  ;  for,  as 
he   says,   his   lot   of    land   cannot   be    taken    from 


40  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

him,  and  it  would  afford  him  and  his  children  a 
living  should  he  chance  to  lose  his  accumulated 
wealth. 

It  is  only  when  a  peasant  emigrates  to  some 
distant  province  that  he  permanently  severs  the 
bond  that  binds  him  to  the  little  lot  acquired 
under  the  emancipation  act  of  t86i.  Indeed,  I 
was  informed  by  those  connected  with  the  move- 
ment for  the  settlement  of  the  new  lands  in 
Siberia  and  elsewhere,  that  the  tenacity  with 
which  the  peasant  adheres  to  his  tract  of  land 
was  one  of  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  emigration 
to  the  new  and  distant  lands,  and  that  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  for  a  peasant  to  voluntarily 
abandon  laro^er  and  better  holdino-s  in  new  coun- 
tries  and  return  again  to  his  little  lot  in  the  old 
commune. 

This  firm  attachment  of  so  large  a  class  to  the 
lands  of  the  country,  and  the  fact  that  five-sixths 
of  her  population  are  engaged  in  the  simple,  invig- 
orating, and  healthful  pursuit  of  agriculture,  con- 
ducing to  a  sound  national  vitality  and  energy, 
is  a  circumstance  not  to  be  lost  sight  of  in 
considering  what  Russia's  future  is  to  be,  in  the 
possible  clash  of  nations  that  may  be  precipitated 
some  day  by  the  pressure  and  necessities  of  a 
population  existing  under  the  highly  artificial, 
intricate,  and  transitory  conditions  of  an  urban  life. 


EMANCIPATION    CARRIED    INTO    EFFECT      41 

It  was  on  February  19,  1861,  over  two  months 
prior  to  the  outbreak  of  civil  war  in  America,  and 
nearly  two  years  before  our  own  great  Lincoln 
issued  his  emancipation  proclamation,  that  the 
memorable  rescript  of  the  Czar  Alexander  II. 
flashed  through  the  long  night  of  Russian  serf- 
dom and  upon  the  world,  bringing  immediate  free- 
dom to  an  enslaved  class  almost  one-half  greater 
in  number  than  the  entire  population  of  the  whole 
United  States  at  that  time,  both  slave  and  free. 
By  a  wise  and  humane  foresight,  there  were,  also, 
provisions  embodied  in  this  very  act  to  enable  a 
hitherto  dependent  class  to  speedily  become,  in 
a  measure,  self-sustaining,  and  in  other  ways  to 
assume  the  burdens,  duties,  and  obligations  created 
by  their  newly  acquired  rights  and  condition. 
Thus  it  was  that  we  see  a  complete  reversal  of  the 
old  order  of  things,  the  serfs  becoming  the  owners 
of  the  lands  they  occupied  and  for  the  use  of 
which  they  served  their  masters,  which  lands,  in 
turn,  under  this  decree,  the  masters  were  com- 
pelled to  apportion  among  their  former  serfs, 
creating  thereby  what  is,  perhaps,  the  largest 
single  body  of  land-owners  on  the  globe. 

When  we  consider  that  the  serf  system  was  the 
growth  of  centuries,  and  had  become  intimately  in- 
terwoven in  every  fibre  of  the  political,  social,  and 
economic  institutions  and  traditions  of  Russia  ;  and, 


42  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

further,  that  the  purposes  contemplated  by  the  act 
have  been  reaUzed  in  the  fullest  measure,  with- 
out drawing  a  sword  or  firing  a  gun,  it  deservedly 
stands  as  the  most  remarkable  achievement  in  the 
interests  of  humanity  ever  accomplished  by  a  ruler 
or  a  nation. 

Thirty-seven  years  later  we  find  the  head  of  this 
great  nation,  the  grandson  of  the  serf-freeing  Czar, 
again  startling  the  world  by  the  issuance  of  another 
rescript,  making  for  the  peace  and  weal  of  the 
world  in  a  no  less  remarkable  manner.  Let  us 
hope  that  the  success  attending  the  benign  efforts 
of  his  great  predecessor  will  crown  the  efforts  of 
the  present  ruler.  With  these  examples  before  us, 
despite  a  prejudice  that  may  exist  against  this 
people — the  cause  of  which  can  only  be  suspected 
—one  finds  himself  irresistibly  impelled  to  seriously 
inquire  what  manner  of  nation,  after  all,  this  really 
is,  that  it  should  so  far  anticipate  all  others  by 
voluntarily  taking  the  initiative  in  measures  calcu- 
lated to  so  profoundly  effect  and  promote  the  free- 
dom, peace,  and  welfare  of  the  human  race. 


^^ 


IV 


Stations  and  restaurants  on  Siberian  railway — Equipment  and  safety 
of  road — Syzran  on  the  Volga  River — The  Tartar — Bridge  on 
Siberian  railway  over  the  Volga  River — The  Volga,  its  size  and 
importance  as  a  highway — First  view  of  the  Ural  Mountains — 
Their  height,  etc. — The  city  of  Zlatoust — Government  works 
and  mines  in  the  Ural  Mountains — Summit  of  the  Urals — En- 
trance into  Siberia — Some  facts  concerning  the  Russian  Empire 
— Eastern  slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains — Crop  conditions  in  the 
Volga  valley — A  look  ahead. 

The  Siberian  railway,  like  all  railways  in  Russia, 
is  well  constructed,  the  road-bed  firm,  track  well 
ballasted,  generally  with  stone,  at  least  as  far  as 
Tscheljabinsk,  and  easy  gradients.  The  road  has  a 
//-  five-foot  gauge,  uniform  with  all  the  roads  in  Euro- 
pean Russia.  This  gives  an  ample  breadth  to  the 
cars,  which,  with  their  unusual  height,  imparts  an 
air  of  comfort  not  possessed  by  roads  of  narrower 
gauge  and  less  height  of  ceiling  in  the  car.  The 
stations,  without  exception,  are  clean  and  hand- 
some, constructed  often  of  wood,  but  frequently  of 
brick  or  stone.  It  is  a  perfect  delight  to  take  a 
meal  in  the  restaurants.  They  have  a  most  agree- 
able custom  of  furnishincr  meals.  On  enterinof  the 
dining-room,  you  will  find  at  one  end  an  immense 


44  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

sideboard  literally  groaning  under  a  load  of  newly 
prepared  Russian  dishes,  always  piping  hot,  and  of 
such  a  bewildering  variety  as  to  range  through  the 
whole  gamut  of  human  fancy  and  tastes. 

You  are  given  a  plate,  with  a  knife  and  fork. 
Making  your  own  selection,  you  retire  to  any  of  the 
neatly-spread  tables  to  enjoy  your  meal  at  your 
leisure,  and,  I  might  add,  with  infinite  zest,  for 
travel  in  this  country,  besides  pleasing  the  eye, 
quickens  the  palate.  The  price,  too,  is  a  surprise 
to  one  accustomed  to  metropolitan  charges.  You 
can  get  soup,  as  fine  a  beefsteak  as  you  ever  ate, 
a  splendid  roast  chicken,  whole,  done  in  Russian 
style,  most  toothsome  and  juicy;  potatoes  and  other 
vegetables,  a  bottle  of  beer,  splendid  and  brewed 
in  this  country,  for  one  ruble — about  fifty  cents. 

Safety  seems  to  be  the  one  idea  uppermost  in  the 
minds  of  the  railway  ministry.  Beside  the  electri- 
cal and  other  appliances  used  in  the  best  railway 
practice,  they  have  an  immense  army  of  guards 
both  for  the  train  and  the  track.  The  road  is 
divided  into  sections  of  one  verst  each — about  two- 
thirds  of  a  mile.  For  each  section  there  is  built  a 
neat  little  cottage  in  which  the  guard  and  his  family 
live.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  guard  or  one  of  his 
family  to  patrol  a  section  night  and  day.  As  soon 
as  a  train  passes,  the  guard  steps  into  the  middle  of 
the  track,  holds  a  flag — at  night  a  lantern — aloft  and 


SAFETY    OF    RUSSIAN    RAILWAYS 


45 


watches  the  retreating  train  until  it  passes  into  the 
next  verst  or  section.  Where  there  is  a  heavy 
curve  that  prevents  the  view  of  the  road  for  the 
distance  of  a  verst,  several  guards  are  employed 


SYZRAN    ON    THE    VOLGA    RIVER 


on  a  section.     A  train  is,   therefore,  never  out  of 
siorht  of  a  ofuard. 

I  might  add  that  women  often  perform  this  ser- 
vice, which  is  quite  apart  from  that  of  the  section 
gang,  whose  duty  is  to  repair  the   road.     On   the 


46  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

Siberian  railway,  as  far  as  Tomsk,  there  are  to  be 
nearly  4,000  of  these  cottages  for  the  use  of  the 
guards ;  a  very  costly  precaution,  but  one  that 
gives  a  pleasing  sense  of  security  to  the  traveller. 
With  the  exception  of  the  great  post  routes  to 
Siberia,  the  Caucasus,  and  main  highways  in  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  which  are  first  class  and  compare 
well  with  other  countries,  the  common  roads  of 
Russia  are  indifferent,  scarcely  equal  to  those  of 
our   own    country. 

On  leaving  Moscow,  there  are  no  towns  worthy 
of  being  called  cities  excepting  at  long  intervals, 
but  farm  villages  are  passed  with  rapid  frequency, 
since  of  the  immense  farming  class,  as  I  have  stated, 
none  dwell  on  the  farms  they  cultivate,  but  live 
wholly  in  villages  or  communes.  The  first  town 
that  is  possessed  of  especial  interest  is  Syzran,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Volga.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  im- 
mense grain  trade,  since  it  is  surrounded  by  one  of 
the  best  and  richest  cereal-sfrowinor  reg^ions  in  East 
Russia.      There  are  celebrated  tanneries  there. 

Here,  also,  one  discovers  in  feature  and  quaint 
costume  the  first  traces  of  the  true  Tartar,  which, 
at  Samara,  100  miles  on,  develops  into  a  distinct 
class  and  pronounced  type.  On  looking  at  these 
tawny  and  grizzled  representatives  of  a  once  power- 
ful race,  the  mind  reverts  to  the  mighty  warriors 
that,    from    Attila  down,    swept    like    a    blighting 


RAILWAY    BRIDGE    OVER    THE    VOLGA     49 

scourge  over  Asia  and  Europe,  leaving  a  Tartar 
trail  even  on  the  steppes  of  Russia. 

At  Batraki,   another  important  grain  port,  and 


BATRAKI    ON   THE   VOLGA 


celebrated  for  the  fine  quality  of  caviare,  the  rail- 
road crosses  the  Voloa.  The  bridge  here,  owine 
to  its  immense  size  and  the  difficulties  encountered 
in  its  construction,  deserves  well  to  be  classed 
amonor   the  world's   sffeat   structures  of  this  kind. 


50  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

It  is  only  a  little  short  of  a  mile  in  length,  being 
built  of  fourteen  sections,  360  feet  span  each.  The 
bridge  is  135  feet  above  the  river  at  low  water. 
There  were  consumed  nearly  7,000  tons  of  iron  in 
its  building,  and  it  was  designed  and  executed  by 
a  Russian  enorineer. 

The  Volga  also  well  merits  being  ranked  among 
the  great  rivers  of  the  world.  It  is  navigable  for 
over  2,000  miles,  and  to  within  a  few  hundred  miles 
of  St.  Petersburg,  as  it  takes  a  semicircular  sweep 
from  the  northwest  towards  Nijni  Novgorod,  and 
thence  in  a  general  southeastern  direction  to  the 
Caspian  Sea,  which  it  enters  at  Astrakhan.  A 
canal  has  been  constructed  from  Ladosfa  Sea  to 
Rybinsk,  the  head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Volga, 
so  that  vessels  can  go  from  the  Baltic  down  the 
Volga  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  thus  cutting  right 
through  middle  European  Russia,  bisecting  it  by 
a  waterway  of  over  2,500  miles. 

The  Volga,  where  we  crossed  it,  very  much  re- 
sembles the  Mississippi  River,  as  well  in  size  as  in 
other  points.  To  form  some  notion  of  the  size  and 
volume  of  water  in  this  mighty  river,  I  would  say,  at 
the  point  where  the  railroad  crosses  the  river  it  is 
just  a  mile  wide  at  low  water.  At  times  of  high 
water  it  is  from  four  to  eiofht  miles  wide.  The 
channel  near  the  bridge  at  low  water  has  a  depth 
of  twenty  feet,  and  at  high  water  of  100  feet. 


GREAT    BRIDGE   ACROSS    THE   VOLGA    RIVER    AT    BATRAKI    ON    THE    TRANS- 
SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


THE    VOLGA    RIVER 


53 


The  velocity  of  the  current  when  the  river  is  at 
its  flood  is  said  to  be  thirty  feet  per  second,  and  in 
its  low  stage,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  per  second. 

From  Batraki  to  Wajsaowaja,  a  distance  of  500 


RUSSIAN    VILLAGE    OX    THE    UFA    RIVER 


miles,  there  are  the  same  fertile  treeless  plains  and 
prairies  as  from  Moscow  to  the  former  place, 
a  distance  of  600  miles.  At  Wajsaowaja  we 
encounter  the  foot-hills  and  get  our  first  view  of 
the  Ural  Mountains.      We  here  also  meet  the  Ufa 


54 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


River,  whose  sinuous  course  the  road  follows  until 
the  summit  of  the  mountains  is  reached. 

Those  who    from   its    great    length — being  over 
1,700  miles  from  north   to  south — have  been  led 


FIRST    VIEW   OF     THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS     AFTER    PASSING    WAJSAO- 
WAJA,    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


to  expect  an  imposing  range  of  mountains,  will 
be  doomed  to  disappointment.  The  height  is 
only  moderate,  being  a  little  over  6,000  feet  at 
the  highest,  in   this   respect   scarcely  equal   to   the 


SUMxVlIT    OF    THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS      55 

Apennines.  The  summit  is  reached  a  little  be- 
yond Zlatoust,  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet.  It 
is  an  easy  grade  and  requires  no  special  effort  to 
surmount. 

On  reachincT  the  summit,  if  one  did  not  know  it 


THE   WESTERN    SLOPE    OF    THE    URAL  MOUNTAINS    ON    THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN 
RAILWAY,   BETWEEN    UFA    AND    ZLATOUST 

was  the  Ural  Mountains,  he  might  well  believe  he 
was  on  the  railwa)-  summit  of  the  Alleghanies  near 
Altoona,  so  similar  to  it  are  the  surroundings. 
Zlatoust,  a  large  town,  is  most  important  in  several 
particulars.  It  was  until  recently  the  "  Botany 
Bay"    of     Russia.       Here    one    occasionally    sees 


56 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


prisoners  chained  in  gangs  destined  to  work  in 
the  mines  or  perhaps,  doomed  to  the  sohtude  of 
farther  Siberia. 

Zlatoust  is  in  the  centre  of  the   iron   regions  of 
Russia.      A  very  fine   quaHty  is   produced   here  in 


STATION    AT    ZLATOUST    ON    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY    NEAR    THE    SUMMIT 
OF    THE    URAL    ^MOUNTAINS 


great  quantities,  and  being  free  from  both  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  it  is  consumed  principally  in  mak- 
ing sheets  and  bars  for  those  purposes  where  the 
highest  quality  is  required. 

The  region  to  the  northward,  extending  to  Perm 
and   Ekaterinburg,  abounds  in  gold,  copper,  mala- 


MANUFACTURE    OF    FIREARMS 


57 


chite,  lapis-lazuli,  and  other  precious  metals  and 
minerals,  all  of  which  are  being  extensively  mined 
and  worked.  At  the  former  place,  which  is  located 
on  the  Kama  River,  there  are  immense  government 
works,  employing  over  2,000  men.      It  has  one  of 


MONUMENT    ON    SUMMIT    OF    URAL    MOUNTAINS    INDICATING    DIVIDING 
LINE    BETWEEN    EUROPE    AND    ASIA 


the  largest  steam  hammers  in  the  world,  and  the 
foundry  turns  out  steel  cannon  of  unusual  size  and 
quality.  They  also  manufacture  firearms  here, 
said  to  equal  anything  manufactured  in  Europe  or 
America,  and  sidearms  of  unsurpassed  excellence. 
It  is  from   these  localities  in   the  Ural  Mountains 


58 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


that  what  is  known  in  America  as  "  Russian  iron  " 
comes. 

In   Zlatoust,   also,   there  are   o-reat  orovernment 


EASTERN    SLOPE   OF    THE    URAL    MOUXTALNS    OX    THE    TRAXS-SIBERL\X 
RAILWAY,    MIDWAY    BETWEEN    ZLATOUST    AND    TSCHELJABINSK 


Avorks  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  cannon  and 
other  arms.  Cutlery  of  various  kinds  is  made 
in  large  quantities,  and  it  is  said  the  swords  are  of 
exceptional  quality.     There  are  also  produced  mar- 


ARTISTIC    CASTINGS 


59 


vellous  castings  from  pig-iron.  The  statuettes  cast 
out  of  this  metal  are  marvels  of  artistic  beauty  and 
technical  skill.  Their  quality,  it  is  said,  is  due 
largely  to  the  superior  moulding  sand  produced  in 
this  region,  but  I  am  of  the  impression  that  it  is 


EASTERN      SLOPE     OF     URAL     MOUNTAINS      ON     TRANS-SIBERLVN      RAILWAY, 
EIGHTY    MILES    FROM    THE    SUMMIT    OF    THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS 

more  properly  attributable  to  the  rare  qualities  of 
the  iron,  which  seems  to  flow  with  unusual  fluidity, 
producing  castings  so  delicate  in  detail  as  to  be 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  bronze.  These  art 
products  are  rapidly  finding  their  way  into  Euro- 
pean markets. 


6o  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

The  town  is  located  on  a  pretty  little  lake  nestled 
most  picturesquely  among  the  hills,  almost  on  the 
summit  of  the  range. 

Shortly  after  leaving   Zlatoust  we  pass  a  large 


ON    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY    JUST    BEFORE    ARKUIM,  Al     1  mTILLJ ABINSK 

Stone  monument  erected  at  some  distance  from  the 
railway.  On  one  side  is,  in  Russian,  the  word 
"  Europe,"  and  on  the  opposite  side  "Asia."  It 
marks  the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
One,  however,  does  not  need  a  monumental  token 


IN   SIBERIA  6i 

to  learn  that  he  is  passing  from  one  great  geo- 
graphical division  to  another,  for  the  sparse  pop- 
ulation, uncultivated  lands,  and  general  wild  aspect 
only  too  clearly  indicate  that  he  has  suddenly  en- 
tered Siberia. 

Here  a  few  facts  may  aid  the  imagination.  The 
Russian  Empire  contains  a  little  over  one-seventh 
of  the  land  surface  of  the  entire  o-lobe,  and  about 
one-twenty-fifth  of  its  whole  surface.  European 
Russia,  with  Poland  and  Finland  included,  has  two 
million  square  miles,  with  over  one  hundred  mil- 
lions of  people.  The  Central  Asian  provinces, 
with  the  Caucasus,  Merv,  and  Kars,  has  1,500,000 
square  miles,  and  14,000,000  people.  Siberia  con- 
tains nearly  5,000,000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  only  4,000,000.  When  we  reflect  that  its 
area  is  nearly  three  times  that  of  Europe,  which 
has  over  200,000,000  people,  it  is  a  matter  of  no 
great  surprise  that  one  quickly  detects  his  advent 
into  this  empty  country. 

The  eastern  slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains  is,  for 
a  space,  more  abrupt  than  the  western,  but  it  soon 
enters  upon  a  gentle  slope  that  continues  until  it 
touches  the  western  edge  of  that  great  level  plain 
which  seems  to  stretch  indefinitely  to  the  east.  On 
leaving  the  summit  we  join  the  Isset,  a  small  river, 
whose  course  we  closely  follow  until  it  deflects  to 
the   northeast,  becoming  a  tributary  to  the   Irtish, 


62 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


itself  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  great  Obi 
River.  Fifty  miles  farther  on  in  the  plains  we  come 
to  Tscheljabinsk,  where  ends  the  first  section  of 
this  great  railway. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  give   the  results  of  my 


RAILWAY  STATION  AT  TSCHELJABINSK,  THE  END  OF  THE  FIRST  SECTION 
OF  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY,  AT  THE  EASTERN  FOOT  OF  URAL 
MOUNTAINS 


observations  respecting  this  year's  crop  conditions 
in  the  country  through  which  I  have  passed,  con- 
stituting as  it  does  the  finest  cereal  region  in  all 
European  Russia.  From  a  deficiency  in  rainfall, 
extending  continuously  over  a  period  of  almost  four 


CROPS    OF    RUSSIA  63 

months,  an  alarming-  shortage  of  all  crops,  even 
grass,  is  certain  to  exist  throughout  an  immense 
area,  reaching  through  several  hundred  miles  east 
and  west,  and  perhaps  five  hundred  miles  north  and 


ENTERING    THE    PLAINS    OR    STEITES    OF     SIBERIA     ON    THE    TRANS-SIBERIAN 
RAILWAY,   ONE  HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF    THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS 

south — an  area  about  equally  bisected  by  the  Volga 
River  and  the  railway  line  throughout  this  vast 
tract.  This  includes  five  of  the  largest  and  agri- 
culturally the  most  important  governments  of  Rus- 
sia, containing  from  ten  to  twelve  million  people, 
and  it  is  almost  certain  that  enouofh  cannot  be  raised 


64 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


this  year  to  meet  the  wants  of  more  than  one-fourth 
of  Its  population. 

The  eovernment  of  Samara  (said  to  be  twice  as 
laro-e  as  Belgium)  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  stricken 


CROSSING    THE    SIBERIAN    STEPPES,   TWO    HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF    THE 
URAL   MOUNTAINS,   ON    THE    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


region,  and  here  already  much  distress  has  devel- 
oped. I  learn,  on  passing-  through,  that  the  Czar 
has  just  given  500,000  rubles  for  the  relief  of  the 
sufferers.  The  reo-ion  over  which  the  drouofht  ex- 
tends  is  the  finest  wheat  region  in  Eastern  Russia, 


SELF-SUSTAINING    POWER    OF    RUSSIA      67 

and  in  ordinary  seasons  supplies  a  large  surplus  for 
export  to  foreign  countries.  I  was  informed  by 
a  Russian  official  connected  with  the  ministry  of 
railways,  that  they  would  probably  have  to  bring 
into  this  region  where  the  shortage  has  occurred, 
from  other  sections  of  Russia,  from  fifty  to  eighty 
million  bushels  of  grain,  to  supply  the  necessary 
food  to  the  inhabitants  and  seed  to  the  farmers.  The 
self-sustaining  power  of  this  great  empire  is  fully 
made  manifest  by  the  fact  that  while  so  serious  a 
shortage  has  occurred  in  one  great  section,  in  many 
others,  such  as  the  Crimea,  the  Caucasus,  and  the 
newly  settled  lands  in  Siberia,  abundant  and  even 
excessive  crops  are  reported,  so  that  not  only  can 
the  deficit  be  fully  supplied  from  her  own  home  re- 
sources, but  there  will  be  left  over  a  fair  surplus 
for  export. 

The  foregoing,  however,  only  tends  to  bring  into 
stronger  relief  the  fact  that  year  by  year  the  once 
wide  margin  between  supply  and  demand  in  the 
food  products  of  the  world  is  gradually  being  nar- 
rowed, and  suggests  some  uncomfortable  reflections 
as  to  what  might  result  if,  instead  of  many  years  of 
yield  much  above  the  average,  as  it  has  been  during 
the  past  ten  years,  the  world  should  be  called  upon 
to  meet  years  of  average  production — quite  as  prob- 
able a  contingency — to  say  nothing  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  years  of  continuous  deficiency. 


68  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

As  my  objective  point  lies  somewhat  over  2,000 
miles  cast  of  this,  and  less  than  200  miles  from  the 
northern  China  border,  and  as  it  has  to  be  per- 
formed by  taking  slow  and  uncertain  railway  trains. 


VIEW    ACROSS     SIBERIAN     STEPPES,   THREE    HUNDRED     MILES    EAST     OF    THE 
URAL    MOUNTAINS 

not  to  say  exhausting  troikas,  you  can  form  some 
notion  of  the  wearisome  journey  I  have  in  pros- 
pect. I  have  long  since  learned,  however,  that 
nothino-  well  worth  can   be  achieved  without  cor- 


THE    KIRGHIZ   TARTARS 


69 


responding  outlay  of  energy.  As  the  Macedonian 
pikeman  said  in  answer  to  an  inquiry  why  he  was 
content  to  follow  the  Grecian  commander  on  his 
fatiguing  conquests,  "  If  you  take  no  pains,  you 
get  no  gains." 

I   shall  probably  write  you  from  Tomsk,  about 


GROUP   OF    KIRGHIZ    TARTARS    AT    STATION    ON    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 

twelve  hundred  miles  east  of  this.  It  may  be 
several  days,  however,  as  I  shall  probabh'  tarry 
some  on  the  way.  The  railway  line  runs  over 
1,200  miles  right  through  the  domain  of  the  Kir- 
ghiz, the  most  interesting  of  all  the  Tartars,  and 
a   most    important    character  to  stud}-.      I   am   in- 


70  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

formed  that  they  arc  yet  the  same  untamed 
nomads  that,  under  Mondzuk  and  his  succes- 
sors, as  a  mong-rel  Tartar  and  Mongol  horde, 
swept  with  such  destructive  fury  nearly  1,600 
years  ago  through  the  length  and  breadth  of  Eu- 
rope, holding  even  Rome  in  terror  for  several 
centuries. 


ON    SIBERIAN    STEPPES,    THREE   HUNDRED    AND    FIFTY    MILES    EAST    OF 
URAL    MOUNTAINS 


ON    SIBERIAN    STEPPES,    EIGHT    HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF    URAL 

MOUNTAINS 


V 


The  Asiatic  continent — A  glance  at  Siberia,  its  geography,  physical 
characteristics,  etc.— The  great  rivers  of  Siberia — Erroneous  im- 
pression of  Siberia — Vast  area  of  level  land — No  difficulty  in 
construction  of  railway — Similarity  of  Western  Siberia  to  a  great 
portion  of  the  United  States — The  error  of  Americans  respecting 
trans-Missouri  River  country — The  route  of  the  Siberian  rail- 
way— Its  construction  and  equipment — Stations  on  railway  in 
Siberia — Track,  bridges,  etc. — Accumulated  grain  on  the  route 
from  Kurgan  to  Tomsk — The  necessity  for  increased  facilities 
on  Siberian  railway — Flora  and  fauna  of  Siberia — Agricultural 
resources  of  Siberia — Possibilities  of  the  country. 

Tomsk,  August,  1898. 

Magnitude.s  and  distances  are  pitched  to  such 
a  huge  scale  on  this  mammoth  Asiatic  continent 
that  one  must  needs  fortify  himself  by  constant 
reference  to  maps  and  charts  in  order  to  maintain 
his  bearings,  and  even  to  know  his  whereabouts. 
If  you  will  refer  to  your  map,  you  will  see  that 
this  is  north  of  Burmah  and  quite  on  the  longi- 
tude of  Calcutta,  and  is  nearly  1,800  miles  east  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  well  at  the  middle  of  the 
northern  border  of  the  great  Chinese  Empire,  from 
which  it  is  distant  only  about  400  miles. 

To  aid  in  forminor  an  intelliorible  understanding 


74 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


of  the  country  through  which  I  have  passed,  and 
of  the  railway  that  traverses  it,  a  brief  glance  at 
the  main   geographic  and  physical  characteristics 


VIEW    ACROSS    THE    IRTISH    RIVLR,    clLLRlA 

of  Siberia  may,  I  believe,  properly  be  made.  Our 
maps  show  us  that  vSiberia  is  a  vast  country  of 
nearly  5,000,000  square  miles  area,  extending, 
from  the  northern  confines  of  China  and  Turkestan 
to  the    Arctic  Sea,  through  over  thirty   degrees  of 


RIVERS    OF    SIBERIA 


11 


latitude,  and,  from  the  Ural  Mountains  in  the  west 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the  east,  through  about  130 
degrees  of  longitude.  Truly,  this  is  a  country  of 
"magnificent  distances." 

In  substantially  parallel  courses  there  are  many 


VIEW    ACROSS    THE    ISHIM     RIVER,   SIBERIA 

mighty  rivers  Bowing  through  the  entire  breadth 
of  Siberia  into  the  Northern  Sea.  The  chief  ones 
are  the  Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena.  The 
main  stems  of  these  rivers  usually  extend  south- 
ward 1,000  or  1,200  miles,  when  by  numerous 
radiating  tributaries  they  spread  fan-like  through 
an  immense  area  of  country,  finally  finding  their 


7« 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


source  in  the  great,  high  plateaus  of  Central  Asia. 
The    railway    line,  therefore,    in    its   western    half 


ON    THE   TOM    RIVER,    SIBERIA 

passes  through  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Obi  and 
the  Yenisei  rivers. 

Somehow  I  had  formed  the  idea  that  Siberia 
was,  in  the  main,  a  mountainous,  broken,  barren, 
and  even  sterile  country,  covered  with  forests — - 
which   opinion,    I    am   inclined   to   think,    is  some- 


MISTAKES    ABOUT    SIBERIA 


8i 


what  generally  entertained  in   the  west.      Nothinp- 
could   be  farther  from  the  fact.      Of   all    the   sur- 


ON  sibp:rian  steppes  or  prairies,  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles 

EAST    OF    THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS 

prises  met  with  in  my  somewhat  extensive  travels, 
Siberia  is  the  greatest. 

As  a  whole,  it  contains  perhaps  the  largest 
continuous  area  of  level  lands  on  the  globe.  Ex- 
cepting spurs   of   the  great  Altai   range  of  moun- 


82 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


tains  frino'inir  its  southern  border,  and  which  cut 
occasional!)'  to  some  distance  northward  into 
Siberia,  the  entire  western  half  of  the  country  is 
exceptionally  level,  almost  to  flatness.  Near  Lake 
Baikal,  in   the  foot-hills  of   the  Altais,   the  moun- 


0\    SIBERIAN    STEPPES,    BETWEEN    KURGAN    AND    PETROPAVLOVSK 


tains  rise  to  a  height  of  not  over  6,000  feet ;  and  it 
is  only  when  going  100  miles  farther,  to  the  very 
China  border,  that  anything  like  a  great  altitude 
is  reached. 

The  railway,  therefore,  having  no  great  moun- 
tain  ranges   to    cross,   and   throughout  almost    its 


TWO    VIEWS    ACROSS    SIBERIAN    STEPPES 


ENGINEERING    ON   SIBERIAN    RAILWAY     85 

entire  length  being  built  through  a  practically 
level  country,  presents  no  example  of  more  than 
ordinary  engineering  achievement ;  in  fact,  it  will 
be  no  more  difficult  to  construct  it  clear  through 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean  than  it  was  to  build  the 
Union  Pacific  from  Omaha  to  Salt  Lake  City. 

If  a  great  section  of  country  of  the  United  States 
and  British  America  be  taken,  extending  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  thirty  degrees  of  latitude 
northward,  and  2,000  miles  eastward  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  it  would  fairly  represent  an 
area  of  country  similar  in  physical  characteristics 
to  that  portion  of  Siberia  which  we  are  considering. 
Indeed,  the  resemblance  is  not  in  extent  only,  for 
in  their  geological  formation  they  are  quite  identi- 
cal— the  one  being  formed  by  the  wash  in  primeval 
times  from  the  eastern  escarpment  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  the  other  from  the  northern  face 
of  the  great  Central  Asian  mountains  in  the  south 
and  that  of  the  Urals  in  the  west.  The  alluvial 
character  of  the  soil  in  both  places  goes  far  to  bear 
out  this  identity  of  origin. 

This  general  similarity,  I  am  sure,  will  hold  for 
the  western  half  of  Siberia  and  that  region  in  the 
United  States  lying  between  the  Rocky  and  Alle- 
ghany mountains.  It  would  not  be  far  from  the 
fact  to  say  that  for  2,000  miles  east  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,    and    extending    to    the    Arctic     Sea, 


86  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

Siberia  is  almost  as  level  as  the  ocean.  In  over 
i,ooo  miles  I  do  not  believe  the  grade  of  the 
railroad  varied  300  feet,  and  in  many  places  it  was 
as    straight    as    an    arrow,    without    the    slightest 


VIEW    ACROSS     SIBERIAN     STEPPES,    FIVE    HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF    THE 
URAL   MOUNTAINS 

curve  for  forty  or  fifty  miles.  Indeed,  there  was 
one  stretch  of  perfectly  straight  road  for  116 
versts,   or  nearly  eighty  miles. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  obtain   specific   infor- 


AMERICAN  AND   RUSSIAN  GEOGRAPHERS     87 

mation  of  the  geography  and  geology  of  this  re- 
gion or  even  of  the  real  nature  of  the  soil.  The 
Russians,  even  of  the  intelligent  and  often  of  the 
official  class,  possess  generally  only  a  superficial 
knowledge  of  the  orreat  countrv  thev  have  so 
suddenly  brought  to  the  eyes  of  the  world. 

In  this  respect  they  much  resemble  the  eastern 
residents  of  our  own  country,  whose  geographers 
and  scientists  fifty  years  ago  regarded  the  trans- 
Mississippi  River  region  as  a  terra  incognita,  and 
insisted  on  recording  in  the  maps  of  those  days 
as  the  "Great  American  Desert"  the  whole  region 
west  of  the  Missouri  River,  now  the  most  fertile 
and  fruitful  country  in  the  whole  United  States. 

For  the  real  nature  of  the  soil,  its  capacity,  etc., 
I  rely  much  on  careful  observation  and  such  in- 
formation as  I  can  extract  from  the  Kirghiz,  who 
come  to  the  railway  from  hundreds  of  miles  both 
north  and  south.  The  Russian  government  is 
making  rapid  and  extensive  surveys,  and  I  doubt 
not  at  no  distant  day  will  supply  the  world  with 
much  specific  knowledge  of  this  hitherto  almost 
unknown    land. 

The  railway  on  leaving  Tscheljabinsk  takes  an 
almost  due  easterly  course,  which  it  varies  by  a 
few  points  only  until  beyond  the  Yenisei  River, 
a  distance  of  about  2,000  miles,  when  it  deflects  to 
the  southeast  for  nearly  800  miles,  until   it  reaches 


ly 


88 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Lake  Baikal,  only  a  short  distance  from  the  China 
border.  It  follows  somewhat  closeh'  the  old 
post  route  from  Moscow  to  Irkutsk,  running-  via 
Zlatoust,  where  at  Tomsk  it  joins  the  more 
northern  post  route  down  the  Tobol    and    Irtish 


KIRGHIZ    TARTARS    AND    CAMEL   TRAIN    ON    SIBERIAN    STEPPES 

rivers  to  Tinmen,  and  thence  over  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains to  Perm  and  Nijni  Novgorod  to  Moscow. 
Curiously  enough,  the  railway  follows  much  the 
same  course  as  that  by  which  in  ancient  times 
the  Huns,  Tartars,  and  Moguls  made  through 
Southern  Russia  their  numerous  and  dreaded 
incursions  into   Europe. 


EQUIPMENT   EQUAL   TO    UNION    PACIFIC    91 

A  sufficiently  accurate  general  description  of 
the  Siberian  railroad  and  Its  various  appointments 
would,  I  think,  be  covered  by  the  statement  that 


RAILWAY   STATION   ON   SIBERIAN   RAILWAY,  EIGHT   HUNDRED   MILES   EAST   OF 
URAL   MOUNTAINS,    OR    OVER    TWO    THOUSAND    MILES    EAST    OF   MOSCOW 

it  Is  fully  equal  to  either  the  Union  or  Northern 
Pacific  Railway,  although  the  oldest  portion  east 
of  Tscheljablnsk  has  been  in  operation  scarcely  two 
years,  and  the  newer  portions  a  few  months  only. 


92 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


The  track  is  well  laid,  the  (grading-  firm  and 
thorough,  and  the  bridges  almost  wholly  of  Iron, 
save  a  few  of  the  original  and  temporary  ones, 
which    are    rapidly    being    replaced     by    those    of 


STATION    OX    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


stone    and    iron.      Those    over    the    Irtish,    Ishim, 
Obi,   l^obol,   Omsk,   and  Tom   rivers    I    found   to 
be  well  constructed,  of  the  best  material  and  most     ( 
approved  modern  pattern. 

The  stations,    always    artistic    and  picturesque, 


STATIONS    ON    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


93 


and  never  of  the  same  style,  are  neat,  comfortable, 
of  good  size,  and  substantial,  fully  equal  to  the 
average  depot  on  the  New  York  Central  or  Penn- 


SACKED  GRAIN  AWAITIXG  SHIPMENT  AT  THE  STATION  ON  SIBERIAN 
RAILWAY  BETWEEN  OMSK  AND  TOMSK,  OVER  ONE  THOUSAND  MILES 
EAST    OF    THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS 

sylvania.  I  noticed  that  recent  surveys  have  been 
made  along  the  line,  and  on  inquiry  was  informed 
that  they  are  preparing  to  build  one  or  more 
additional   tracks.      This   is  a  very  timely  provis- 


94 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


ion,   as  the    road  is  already  taxed  far  beyond  its 
capacity. 

All  along-  the  line  I  saw  piles  of  grain  and  other 


PASSENGER  TRAIN  FOR  ORDINARY  SERVICE  ON  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAIL- 
WAY, MAKING  DAILY  TRIPS  TO  TOMSK,  NEARLY  THREE  THOUSAND 
MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW 


kinds  of  freight  awaiting  shipment.  One  of  the 
officials  of  the  road  informed  me  that  there  were 
over  8,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  lying  at  the 
depots  between  Kurgan   and  Tomsk,  which  could 


EiMIGRANT   TRAINS  95 

not  be  carried.  The  road  is  crowded  with  emi- 
grant trains  eastward,  and  this,  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country  on  the  Hne  and  the  carrying 
of  the  material  for  thousands  of  miles  of  road  yet 


VIEW    ON    THE    SIBERIAN    STEPPES,  BETWEEN    THE    TOBOL  AND    ISHIM    RIVERS. 
EMIGRANT    TRAIN    CROSSING   THE    STEPPES    TO    OCCUPY    NEW    LANDS 

to  be  built  beyond,  has   naturally  enough   brought 
about  a  serious  block  in  traffic. 

To  those  familiar  with  the  rapid  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  the  trans-Missouri  River  region  and 


96 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


the  traffic  necessities  it  created,  it  is  apparent  that 
in  a  few  years  this  great  highway  will  have  to 
increase  its  present  facilities  several    times    over. 


ON  THE  OPEN  STEPPES  OF  SIBERIA,  ABOUT  ONE  THOUSAND  MILES  EAST 
OF  THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS,  OR  NEARLY  TWO  THOUSAND  FOUR  HUN- 
DRED   MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW 

In  addition  to  the  trade  and  travel  that  must  result 
from  binding  commercially  and  socially  together 
500,000,000  people  in  the  Far  East  and  300,000,- 
000  in  the  West,  there  will  be  that  due  to  the  devel- 


FLORA   AND    FAUNA    OF   SIBERIA  97 

opment  of  an  intermediate  country,  in  combined 
fertility  and  extent  far  surpassing  anything  yet 
undeveloped  on  the  globe. 

To   describe    in   full   and   satisfactory  detail  the 
flora,   fauna,  fertility  of    soil,   and  the  various  re- 


VIEW    ACROSS    SIBERIAN    PRAIRIES 


sources  of  this  wonderful  country  would  transcend 
the  limits  of  time  and  space  of  a  letter.  It  would 
require  volumes  to  do  this.  I  will,  therefore,  have 
to  confine  myself  to  generalities  merely.  I  have 
already  said  that  there  lies  in  Western  Siberia, 
from  the  Ural  Mountains  eastward,  an  unbroken 
tract  of  practically  level  land,  about  800  miles  wide 


98 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


and  nearly  2,000  miles  long ;  that  Is  to  say,  an 
area  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  United  States, 
excepting  Alaska. 

When  I  add  that  for  the  most  part  it  is  like  or 


DISTANT    HERD    OF    CATTLE    ON    SIBERIAN    PLAINS    OR    STEPPES 


even  superior  to  the  fertile,  treeless,  level  prairies 
of  our  own  ereat  West  ;  that  it  extends  over 
thirtv  decrees  of  latitude,  from  the  orenial  climate 
of  Central  Asia  to  the  frigid  north  ;  that  through- 


THE    FUTURE    OF    SIBERIA 


99 


out  this  vast  region  is  to  be  found  the  finest  pas- 
turage in  the  world  ;  that  in  many  parts  wheat  and 
other  cereals  can  be  grown  equal  to  the  Dakotas 
or  ^linnesota,  and   even  Indian   corn   over  a   large 


EMIGRANTS    AT    RAILWAY     STATION    BETWEEN    KAINSK    AND    TOMSK    ON   THE 
TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 


region  in  the  south — some  feeble  conception  can  be 
formed  of  the  tremendous  latent  agricultural  re- 
sources of  this  country. 

This  fact  is  emphasized  by  the  further  state- 
ment that  it  is  inhabited  by  only  a  comparatively 
small  population  of    Tartars    and    other   nomadic 


loo  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

tribes.     The  cities  being  few  and  small,  the  fixed 
population  is  relatively  insignificant. 

For  the  whole  of  Siberia  there  is  less  than  one 
person  to  the  square  mile.  If  it  be  further  added, 
that  this  country  lies  practically  between  the  same 
degrees  of  latitude  as  European  Russia;  that  it  has 
an  area  much  greater  and  an  average  fertility  of 
soil  even  superior  in  many  places  ;  and  that  the  lat- 
ter country  already  supports  over  100,000,000  of 
people,  with  a  liberal  surplus,  some  notion  may  be 
formed  of  the  teeming  millions  that  are  yet  to 
people  this  waste  land,  when  it  is  made  avail- 
able by  an  adequate  railway  system  and  other 
means  of  intercommunication  and  transportation, 
which,  under  the  newly  awakened  spirit  of  Russian 
enterprise,  seems  destined  to  be  accomplished  in 
due  time.  Indeed,  a  most  comprehensive  system 
has  already  crystallized  into  something  of  a  con- 
crete form. 


VI 


Ultimate  Siberian  railway  system — Proposed  line  from  Central  Si- 
beria to  Persian  Gulf — New  relations  between  Russia  and  China, 
arising  from  the  Siberian  railway — Change  from  the  route  as 
originally  projected — New  route  to  Vladivostok — Rapid  settle- 
ment of  country  on  Siberian  railway — Quick  growth  of  towns 
on  the  line — Development  of  lands  to  follow  railway  extension — 
Grazing  lands  on  Siberian  railway — Small  lakes  through 
Siberia — Timber  in  Western  Siberia. 

I  WAS  fortunate  enough  to  form  the  acquaintance 
of  one  of  the  engineers  of  the  Siberian  railway,  a 
most  courteous  gentleman,  who  gave  me  not  only 
many  details  concerning  the  great  line,  but  also 
a  brief  outline  of  the  proposed  ultimate  Siberian 
system.  In  addition  to  the  contemplated  line  run- 
ninpf  northward  to  Tobolsk  and  several  toward  the 
China  border,  they  design  running  one  in  a  south- 
western direction  toward  Samarkand,  crossing  the 
trans-Caspian  road,  now  completed  to  the  western 
border  of  China,  and  thence  southward  through 
Persia,  with  its  ultimate  destination  on  the  Per- 
sian Gulf. 

The  recent  entente  with  China  has  caused  a 
radical  change  in   the  plan  of   the  eastern  section 


104  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

of  the  Siberian  railway,  as  originally  projected. 
Instead  of  making  the  long  detour  via  the  Amoor 
River    to    Vladivostok,     necessitated     by    passing 


VIEW  ACROSS  THE  STBERIAX  STEPPES,  NINE  HUNDRED  MIPES  EAST  OE 
THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS,  OR  ABOUT  TWO  THOUSAND  TWO  HUNDRED 
MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW 

around  Manchuria,  they  are  now  permitted,  under 
the  new  treaty  with  China,  to  construct  a  line 
running  through  that  province  direct  to  Vladi- 
vostok. 


RAILWAY    IN    MANCHURIA 


105 


They  have,  therefore,  stopped  work  for  the 
present  on  the  eastern  section  of  the  Hne,  and 
are    bending    all    their   energies    to    build,    in    the 


RECENT    SETTLEMENT     ON    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY,    ONE    THOUSAND    ONE'' HUN- 
DRED   MILES    EAST    OF    URAL   MOUNTAINS 


shortest  possible  time,  a  line  through  Manchuria 
to  their  newly  acquired  open  port  on  the  China 
Sea,  at  Port  Arthur.  This  line  will  leave  the 
main  one  at  Chiti,  about  800  miles  east  of  Lake 


io6  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

Baikal,  following  almost  a  due  east  course  to 
Vladivostok. 

A  line  will  branch  off  at  Kirin  and  run  clue 
south  to  Port  Arthur.  This  will  create  a  system 
that  will  make  Russian  influence  practically  para- 
mount  in    Manchuria. 

A  prominent  Russian  gentleman,  residing  at 
Vladivostok,  who  was  on  the  train  on  his  way 
over  the  proposed  route,  spoke  very  freely  of  the 
intentions  of  his  government  in  that  quarter, 
substantially  confirming  the  plans  given  me  by 
the  engineer  of  the  line.  Under  this  newly  re- 
vised scheme,  the  route  to  Vladivostok  will  be 
shortened  many  hundreds  of  miles  from  that 
originally  projected. 

All  along  the  route  of  the  Siberian  railway 
are  to  be  found  those  examples  of  quick  settle- 
ment of  country  and  sudden  growth  of  towns 
so  familiar  in  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  in  the 
early  days  of  the  extension  of  railways  through 
those  States.  Every  few  miles  a  station  is  located 
on  the  open  plains  or  prairies,  around  which  there 
quickly  clusters  a  thriving  village.  Fields  of 
newly  cultivated  lands,  many  covered  with  a 
golden  harvest,  can  be  seen  for  miles  at  all  these 
stations.  There  are  some  instances  of  rapid 
growth  not  surpassed  in  our  own  great  West. 

After  crossing  the  Obi  River,  we  stopped  at   a 


^r  o 


NEW  TOWNS   ON   SIBERIAN   RAILWAY     109 

town  called  Obb,  of  over  14,000  inhabitants,  con- 
taining many  handsome  buildings  and  several 
beautiful    church    edifices.      It    was    a    flourishing 


NEW    SETTLEMENT    ON    SIBERIAN  RAILWAY,  TWO    THOUSAND    FIVE    HUNDRED 
MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW,    BETWEEN     OBB     AND    TOMSK 

community  and  the  seat  of  an  active  trade.  I  was 
told  that  less  than  three  years  ago  there  was  not  a 
house  existing  where  the  town  now  stands,  and, 
indeed,  that  the  whole  country  around  was  one  of 
wild  solitude  and  desolation. 


no 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Willi  these  accomplished  results  before  us,  it  is 
eas)-  to  see  what  a  magical  transformation  must 
take  place  in  this  great  country  under  the  influence 
of  an  extended  railway  system.      It  is  all  the  more 


NEW  SETTLEMENT  ON  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY,  ONE  THOUSAND  ONK 
HUNDRED  MILES  EAST  OF  THE  URALS,  AND  BETWEEN  KRIWOSTCHE- 
KOWO    AND    KAINSK. 


easily  imagined  by  one  who  has  already  seen  in  his 
own  country  an  object  lesson  of  a  similar  character. 
I  doubt  if  the  Russians  fully  realize  to  what  an  ex- 
tent their  great  enterprise  is  going  to  modify  their 
economic  and,  perhaps,  social  conditions. 


FUTURE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    COUNTRY    113 

For  reasons  I  will  hereafter  give,  this  great  re- 
gion is  not  likely  to  be  settled  and  developed  with 
that    rapidity    which     marked     our    lightning-like 


NEW  SETTLEMENT  ON  SIBERIAN  RAILWAY,  ONE  THOUSAND  TWO  HIINORKD 
AND  FIFTY  MILES  EAST  OF  THE  URALS,  OR  ABOUT  TWO  THOUSAND 
FIVE    HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW 


advance  in  the  West  ;  still  it  will  be  fast  enough 
to  make  a  decided  change  in  the  commercial  and 
economic  interests  of  old  or  European  Russia, 
unsettlinof  for  a  time  to  some  extent — as  it  did  in 


114 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


our  country — the  almost  fixed  equilibrium  so  long 
existing  there. 

If  a  section,  of  say,  fifty  miles,  in  the  richest  por- 
tion   of  the   Platte  valley  in   Nebraska  be  carved 


STATION  O.N  THE  OPEN  STEPPES  OF  SIBERIA,  ON  THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAIL- 
WAY, OVER  ONE  THOUSAND  MILES  EAST  OF  THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS  AND 
ABOUT    TWO    THOUSAND    TWO    HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW 


out  as  a  sample,  there  would  be  a  strict  resemblance 
between  this  and  the  country  on  the  line  of  the 
Siberian  railway,  through  the  whole  distance  from 
the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  Yenisei  River,  nearly 
1, 800  miles.      Throucrhout  this  great  distance,  ex- 


TIMBER    ON    RAILWAY    LINE 


115 


cepting  a  portion  between  the  Obi  and  Yenisei, 
there  is  no  timber  save  a  species  of  small  birch 
closely  resembling-  the  cottonwoocl  of  the  Missouri 


.  '-"^  w.. 


ON  THE  SIBERIAN  STEPPES  OR  PRAIRIES,  OVER  ONE  THOUSAND  MILES  EAST 
OF  THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS,  AND  ABOUT  TWO  THOUSAND  TWO  HUNDRED 
MILES    EAST    OF    MOSCOW 


valley.  Being  scattered  at  wide  intervals  in  small 
clumps  throughout  this  vast  country,  it  greatly 
heightens  the  similarity. 


ii6 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


I  have  already  said  the  Hne  is  almost  level  and 
straight  as  an  arrow  from  the  Obi  to  the  Ural 
Mountains.      I  do  not  believe,  for  that  space,  the 


ON    THE    SIBERIAN    STEPPED,   hKl  WhEN    THE   ISHIM  AND  IRTISH  RIVERS,   ON 
THE    LINE    OF    THE    SIBERIAN   RAILWAY 


line  varied  300  feet  from  a  true  level.  Along  the 
whole  line  there  is  the  most  luxuriant  erowth  of 
grass  I  have  seen  in  any  country.  There  are 
many  varieties — some  like  the  native  blue  stem 
of  the  West,  and   one  variety  that   in   appearance 


WONDERFUL    GRAZING    LANDS 


seemed  closely  allied  to  the  Kentucky  blue  grass. 
Judging-  from  the  superb  condition  of  the  animals 
that  graze  upon  them,  they  must  all  be  of  the  most 


RFXENT  SETTLEMENT  ON  SIBERIAN  RAILWAY,  l!ETWi;EN  THE  Olil  AN1>  TOM 
RIVERS,  ABOUT  TWO  THOUSAND  FOUR  HUNDRED  MILES  EAST  OF 
MOSCOW 

nutritious  nature;  it  is,  therefore,  not  only  one  of 
the  finest,  but  by  far  the  larcrest  orrazine  regions  in 
the  world.  If  fully  utilized,  I  believe  Siberia  could 
furnish   the  beef  supply   for  the  world.      The  soil 


ii8 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


seems  similar  to  that  of  Eastern  Nebraska  and 
Kansas  ;  in  fact  it  is,  in  great  part,  identical  with 
the  Tschernozium  formation  in  European  Russia, 
an  eastward  extension  of  which  it  seems  to  be. 


LAKE    ON    THE    SIBERIAN    STEPPES 


The  country  for  600  miles  was  literally  dotted 
with  beautiful  lakes  of  clear,  pure  water  of  one-half 
to  two  miles  in  diameter,  the  habitat,  in  the  season, 
of  myriads  of  ducks,  geese,  and  other  wild  fowl. 
These  lakes,  as  also  the  rivers,  abound  in  fish  of 
good  quality  and  many  varieties.      The  country  is, 


GAME    ON    SIBERIAN    STEPPES 


121 


therefore,  well  watered  and  well  drained.  I  saw 
scarcely  any  traces  of  alkali  in  the  soil.  There 
are  many  grouse  and  partridge  in  the  steppes,  but 
no  deer  of  any  kind;  accountable,  no  doubt,  to  the 


CHAPEL    IN    RECENTLY    SETTLED    TOWN    ON    SIBERL\N    RAILWAY 


long  occupancy  of  the  country  b)'  the  Tartars,  who 
convert  it  into  a  sort  of  semi-domestic  domain. 

As  the  railway  manao-ement  have  for  the  moment 
made  a  liberal  allotment  of  time  in  which  the  occa- 
sional passenger  trains  are  to  make  the  trip,  fre- 
quent stops  are  made.  At  some  of  the  larger 
towns  the  delay  may  be  from  two  to  five  hours,     I 


122  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

have  availed  myself  of  the  opportunity  thus  given 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  country  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  line,  by  jumping  into  a  drosky  and 
driving  straight  away  from  the  road.  At  the 
breakneck  speed  they  habitually  drive,  I  have  been 
enabled  frequently  to  cover  a  distance  from  ten  to 
twenty  miles  from  the  station. 

After  passing  the  Obi  River  the  land,  as  far  as 
the  Yenisei,  becomes  more  rolling  and  has  a  thicker 
growth  of  trees,  the  fir  being  present  to  some  ex- 
tent, with  the  birch.  This  region  is  almost  exactly 
like  Eastern  Nebraska  and  the  State  of  Iowa — the 
same  rolling  lands  and  deep,  black  soil.  If  pos- 
sible, this  is  even  better  wheat  land  than  the  more 
level  lands  west  of  the  Obi.  From  the  Yenisei 
for  about  600  miles,  I  am  told  that  much  the  same 
country  exists,  until  the  mountain  range  near  Lake 
Baikal  is  reached,  running  as  a  spur  from  the  Altais 
in  Northern  China. 


VII 


Kurgan  on  the  Tobol  River — The  Kirghiz  Tartars — Their  tents,  vil- 
lages, mode  of  life,  etc. — The  future  of  Kurgan — Winters  in 
Siberia — No  blizzards  in  Western  Siberia — Rainfall — Petropav- 
lovsk  on  the  Ishim  River — Rapid  change  in  country  on  railway 
line — Emigrant  trains  eastward — Growth  of  grains  on  the  line 
of  railway — Surplus  awaiting  shipment — Omsk  on  the  Irtish  and 
Om  rivers — Interesting  character — Tomsk  on  the  Tom  River — 
The  prison  in  Tomsk — Flourishing  college — Electric  lights, 
telephone  system,  and  other  conveniences — Condition  of  railroad 
east  of  Tomsk — Various  excursions  from  Tomsk  into  the 
country. 

The  first  town  of  importance  after  leaving 
Tscheljabinsk  is  Kurgan,  once  tlie  seat  of  the  Tar- 
tar government  before  its  conquest  by  the  Musco- 
vite. It  is  situated  on  the  Tobol  River,  which, 
after  flowing  500  miles  north,  joins  the  Irtish  at 
Tobolsk.  Kuroran  lies  in  the  midst  of  what,  in 
virtue  of  its  extent,  richness  of  soil,  and  exuberant 
pasturage,  is  perhaps  the  largest  and  best  tract 
of  grazing  land  on  the  globe.  The  town  owes  its 
importance  to  the  large  cattle  trade  that  centres 
here  from  the  Kirghiz  steppes  in  all  directions. 
It  was  a  town  of  no  inconsiderable  importance 
before  the  railroad  was  constructed. 


124 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Here  one  sees  the  Kirghiz  in  his  natural  state, 
but  Httle  modihed  by  modern  civilization.  They 
are  a  splendid  race,  having  strong  features  and 
a  dignified  bearinef,  and  are  accredited  with  many 
virtues.      It   is    said    they    are    unusually    cleanly 


STATION    AT    KURGAN,    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 

and  of  notable  fidelity  and  hospitality,  especially 
where  strangers  are  concerned.  Being  a  purely 
pastoral  people,  they  disdain  the  tillage  of  the  soil, 
living  almost  wholly  on  the  production  of  their 
herds.  The  life  of  the  Tartar  is  a  simple  and 
monotonous  one,  and  withal  frugal.  Their  diet 
consists  almost  wholly  of  meats  and  cheese. 


TARTAR    YURTS    OR   TENTS 


127 


They  have  a  pecuhar  drink  called  ayran,  made 
of  boiled  milk  diluted  with  water,  and  then 
allowed  to  stand  until  it  slightly  ferments  and 
turns  sour.  It  forms  an  excellent  and  most 
refreshing  summer  drink.      Their  various  products 


KIRGHIZ  YIRT  OR  TENT  AND  GROUP  OF  TARTARS  ON  THE  SIBERIAN  STEI'l'ES, 
BETWEEN    KURGAN   ANU    PETROPAVLOVSK 


of  the  dairy  are  kept  in  goat-skins.  Their  cloth- 
ing and  bedding  they  make  themselves,  and 
mostly  from  the  felt  and  wool  of  the  sheep  and 
goat.  The  curious  tents  in  which  these  people 
live,  called  yurts,  and  that  are  scattered  in  villages 
— called     in     Tartar,    aul — throuofhout     the     wide 


128  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

steppes,  are  well  known.  They  are  made  of  a 
coarse  felt,  fully  an  inch  thick,  composed  of  the 
coarser  varieties  of  sheep  and  goat's  wool.  The 
tents  are  round,  with  a  dome-shaped  cover,  in  the 
apex  of  which  is  a  small  aperture  through  which 
the  smoke  escapes  from  the  fire  built  on  the 
ground  in   the  centre  of  the  tent. 

It  is  impossible,  from  the  want  of  reliable  statis- 
tics, to  determine  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the 
number  of  these  people,  who  once  swarmed  in 
such  multitudes,  necessitating  those  periodic  over- 
flows the  mere  menace  of  which  terrified  even  re- 
mote nations.  But  as  they  are  scattered  through- 
out an  area  of  beautiful  and  fertile  country 
two-thirds  as  large  as  the  United  States,  they 
must  yet  number  many  hundreds  of  thousands. 
Their  herds  are  mainly  composed  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  although  they  have  many  fine  horses  and 
an  occasional  flock  of  goats.  The  quality  of  meat 
grown  on  these  steppes  is  unsurpassed,  I  might 
almost  say  unequalled,  as  nothing  can  exceed  the 
quality  of  the  beef,  mutton,  and  veal  that  are 
served  at  the  railway  stations  on  the  line  running 
through  this  region. 

Kurgan  is  certainly  cast  for  a  large  city,  when 
once  the  great  country  tributary  to  it  is  utilized  to 
anything  like  its  full  capabilities.  Although  you 
see    everywhere    immense    herds   of    animals,  and 


WINTERS    IN    SIBERIA 


31 


although  the  country  is  checkered  with  newly 
ploughed  fields,  still  it  is  apparent  that  its  ulti- 
mate grazing  and  cereal  resources  have  as  yet 
been   scarcely  more   than   tested. 


CHURCH    IN    NEW    STRF.RIAN   A'lLLAGE 


Although  the  winters  are  ver\'  cold,  they  are 
not  especially  long  or  trying.  While  the  extreme 
temperature  during  winter  may  reach  a  point  ten 
to  fifteen  degrees  lower  than  in  Ohio,  or  generalh' 


132  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

in  latitude  forty  in  the  United  States,  still,  as  the 
air  is  very  dry  and  there  are  no  high  winds,  I 
have  no  doubt  the  winter  season  can  be  passed 
without  especial  discomfort.  When  winter  sets  in, 
which  it  does  suddenly,  and  usually  about  the  first 
of  November,  it  continues  steadily  through  about 
five  months,  when  there  is  as  sudden  a  breakup, 
ushering  in  permanently  pleasant  warm  weather. 

There  are  no  mid-winter  thaws,  as  in  the  United 
States,  with  their  extremes  of  summer  heat  and 
polar  chills,  but  the  weather  remains  continuously 
cold,  and  the  snow  lies  unbroken  on  the  gfround 
until  the  spring  thaw.  Nor  is  the  snowfall  exces- 
sive. By  those  who  have  the  experience,  I  am 
informed  that  the  winters  are  far  more  agreeable 
than  in  other  countries,  where  the  temperature  is 
higher  and  more  violent  changes  occur. 

There  is  one  climatic  feature  here  that  gives  this 
country  a  marked  advantage  over  our  own  great 
West,  where  a  higher  temperature  prevails,  and  that 
is  the  entire  absence  of  those  blizzards  which  are 
the  terror  of  our  Western  stockmen.  I  cannot  re- 
member having  seen  on  the  entire  line  of  the 
Siberian  railway  more  than  one  or  two  places  where 
barriers  were  provided  to  protect  the  track  from 
drifting  snow.  I  am,  indeed,  told  that  the  Tartars 
give  their  herds  neither  food  nor  protection  in  the 
winter,  leaving   them   to   take  care  of  themselves, 


RAINFALL    AND    ITS    CAUSES 


35 


which  it  is  said  they  readily  do  by  scratching  away 
the  snow  that  covers  the  tall,  thick  erowth  of  erass 
beneath.      The   rainfall    in   summer   is    seasonable 


0\    THE    POST-ROUTE    FROM    PETROPAVLOVSK    TO    OMSK 


and  abundant,  I  have  been  unable  to  make  out 
to  my  own  satisfaction  where  the  rain  comes  from. 
As  in  America,  it  invariably  rains  here  when  the 
rain-bearing  clouds  come  from  the  south  and  west, 
and   clears  away  with   a  north  or  northwest  wind. 


136  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

It  is  easy  to  understand  wh)',  in  America,  a  south 
wind  brinofs  rain.  As  the  current  of  air  saturated 
with  moisture  from  tlie  Gulf  and  warm  equatorial 
waters  in  the  south  comes  in  contact  with  the 
colder  air  of  higher  latitudes,  it  naturally  deposits 
it  in  the  form  of  rain.  But  as  a  south  wind  here 
comes  from  the  high,  cold  plateau  region  of  Central 
Asia,  where  the  air  is  dry  and  evaporation  meagre, 
it  is  not  easy  to  see  why  a  southern  current  of  air 
under  these  conditions  should  deposit  rain. 

Petropavlovsk  is  the  next  town  of  importance 
reached.  It  is  on  the  Ishim  River,  a  tributary  of 
the  Obi,  and  it  contains  about  20,000  inhabitants. 
It  was  once  the  frontier  fortress  used  by  Russia 
against  the  Kirghiz.  It  owes  its  existence  to  an 
important  trade  with  Samarkand  and  Central  Asia, 
great  trains  of  camels  coming  from  those  places. 
Like  all  the  old  towns  on  this  route,  new  buildinofs 
and  other  evidences  of  rapid  development  attest 
the  vivifying  influence  of  the  railroad. 

From  Petropavlovsk  to  Omsk,  a  distance  of 
.  about  400  miles,  there  is  the  same  monotonous 
repetition  of  level,  fertile  plains,  flower}-  fields, 
budding  villages,  and  newly  cultivated  lands.  It 
is  evident  that  the  Russian  policy  of  settling  this 
country,  which  I  will  give  you  later  on,  is  produc- 
ing marked  changes,  especially  in  those  parts  ren- 
dered accessible   by  the   railroad.       For  miles   on 


IMMIGRANTS   INTO   SIBERIA 


139 


each  side  of  the  line,  as  far  as  the  Yenisei  River, 
the  lands  are  being  taken,  and  in  many  places 
heavy  crops  are  being  raised.  Long  trains  crowded 
with  emigrants  on  their  way  eastward  are  frequently 


STREET    SCENE    IN    OMSK 


passed.  Of  wheat  and  oats  they  have  already  pro- 
duced a  large  surplus.  All  along  the  route,  as  far 
as  Tomsk,  one  will  see  at  the  stations  great  piles 
of  sacks  containing  wheat  of  last  year's  crop,  which, 


140  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

on  account  of  the  congested  traffic  of  the  road,  is 
awaiting  shipment.  This  surphis  is  happily  most 
opportune,  as  it  will  be  shipped  to  the  drought- 
stricken  region  1,500  miles  to  the  west,  where,  on 
account  of  excessive  dry  weather,  in  the  fairest  por- 
tion of  Russia  in  the  Volga  valley,  300  miles  wide 
and  nearly  500  miles  long,  the  crops  have  been  al- 
most an  absolute  failure  and  much  distress  exists. 

Omsk,  on  the  Irtish  River,  the  second  city  of 
Siberia,  with  a  population  of  40,000,  owes  much 
of  its  importance  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  capital  of 
Western  Siberia,  which  was  moved  from  Tobolsk 
in  1824.  Like  all  Siberian  towns  of  this  class,  it 
has  some  eleeant  and  even  massive  orovernment 
buildings,  alone  with  manv  fine  brick  and  stone 
business  structures,  all  embedded  in  a  mass  of  curi- 
ously built  wooden  houses.  The  streets,  except 
the  long  one  on  which  the  business  houses  are 
located,  and  forming  the  artery  of  the  town,  are 
unpaved  ;  much  of  the  year  they  are  almost  impas- 
sable. Like  all  Russian  towns,  there  are  many  fine 
churches  in  Omsk,  some  of  them  of  great  size,  and, 
being  always  of  the  Oriental  type  of  architect- 
ure, sometimes  present  an  indescribably  charming 
appearance. 

At  Omsk  a  most  interesting  character  came 
aboard  the  train,  on  his  way  to  Tomsk,  returning 
thence  to  Moscow  to  attend  the  dedication  there 


•  ^?? 

■J 

rJSmm 

^ 

.    'S 

%     1 

; 

1 
1 

'..mSa^ 

-^'''"•*'!ip 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^pi^^^^^lKf .  ~'-^^^^^^M^^ 

^sssSBl^^^^^^^^    I  ^  V'^H            Mj^^ 

^QB^'I^H 

^Ofn^H 

mma^k-^    "^jn 

^HJH^^^^^^^^r^  -^Jr        ~  *  wIR    1 

■■yEiiiiMiii^^^HH^^^fiiflA      -^ks 

AN   INTERESTING    CHARACTER 


=  43 


of  the  monument  to  the  Czar  Alexander  II.,  which 
is  soon  to  take  place  and  promises  to  be  an  impos- 
ing affair.  He  was  a  fine  specimen  of  this  hardy 
race,  about  sixty-five  years  of  age,  most  intelligent 
and  well  educated.      He  is  the  mayor  of  cpiite   an 


STREKT    SCF.XE    I\    TOMSK 


important  city  called  Vernoe,  in  Southern  Siberia 
in  the  Altai  ■Mountains,  over  i,ooo  miles  soutlu^ast 
of  Omsk.  He  had  just  driven  from  that  cilN-  in  a 
troika,  a  distance  of  1,200  miles,  in  eight  days. 
Having  spent   most   of  his  life    in   that    region,  he 


144 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


had  never  Ijefore  seen  a  railway.  It  was  interest- 
ing- to  note  his  thized  and  half-frightened  appear- 
ance as  the  train  moved  off.  Through  my  guide, 
I  obtained  from  him  much  valuable  information  as 


ON    THE    STEPPKS    OF    SUSERIA,    EAST    OF    KURGAN 

to  the  nature  of   the  great  region   lying  south  of 
the  railway  line. 

He  informed  me  that  for  600  miles  the  same 
level,  rich,  black  prairie  lands  extended.  After 
that,  by  a  gradual  ascent  through  500  or  600  miles 
further,  the  lands  meanwhile  growing  more  rolling 
and  rougher,  the  summit  of  the  Altais  is  reached 
at    an   elevation    of    12,000   feet.      All    the   cereals 


r?^>!^~-I'"''-*v 


DISTANT    VIEW    OF    TOMSK 


STREET    SCENE    IN    TOMSK 


GROWTH    OF    CEREALS    IN   SIBERIA       147 

oTOw  there  in  ofreat  luxuriance  and  abundance. 
Even  Indian  corn  throughout  a  great  extent  of 
that  country  grows  and  matures  in  the  most  per- 
fect manner.  The  usual  crop  of  wheat,  he  stated, 
was  about  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  and  that  of  oats 


MARKET    SCENE    IN    TOMSK 


about  sixty  bushels.  The  country,  as  a  whole,  is 
practically  unsettled,  being  occupied  mainly  by  a 
few  roving  tribes  of  Kalmuck  or  Kirghiz  Tartars. 
Tomsk  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  and 
largest  town  in  Siberia,  and  has  had  a  rapid  growth 
since  the  railway  has  been  completed  there.  It  is 
not  on  the  main  line,  but  eiofhtv  miles  awav  on  a 


148  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

branch  runninL^"  northward  down  the  Tom  Valley, 
and  which  in  due  time  will  be  extended.  It  much 
resembles  Omsk,  havinof  some  fine  Q-overnment  and 
business  buildings.  The  prison  is  a  huge,  ugly, 
brick  building,  with  low,  vaulted  corridors   in  the 


MlbgiSMfiSyMBl^^^^ke^^?^^^!^             i;Q:^=^-s=r.^K 

VILLAGE    IN    SIBERIA,    IN    THE   TOM    RIVER    VALLEY,    ON    THE     POST-ROUTE 
FROM    TOMSK    TO    TOBOLSK 

interior,  the  whole  of  such  gloomy  aspect  as  to 
fully  satisfy  the  most  dismal  imaginings  of  those 
who  are  disposed  to  believe  in  the  horrors  of 
Siberian  prison  life.  There  is  a  flourishing  uni- 
versity in  Tomsk,  with  300  students  and  thirty 
professors.  I  might  add  that  Tomsk  is  lighted 
by  electric  light  and  has  a  telephone  system. 


EXCURSIONS    INTO    THE    COUNTRY      151 

As  the  departure  of  trains  eastward  from  Tomsk 
is  most  irrecrular  and  uncertain,  beingr  usually  at 
intervals  of  from  three  to  five  days,  this  delay  gave 
me  an  opportunity  to  make  several  interesting  and 


VIEW    ON    POST-ROUTE    BETWEEN    TOMSK    AND    IRKUTSK 


instructive  excursions  far  into  the  country,  on  the 
old  post-routes  running  to  Tobolsk  and  Irkutsk. 
In  these  I  saw  the  native  Russian  life  in  its  most 
provincial  form.  While  there  are  a  few  good 
roads  leading  from  Tomsk,  there  are  many  very 
bad   ones. 


VIII 

Travelling  on  post  and  common  roads  in  Russia  and  Siberia — 
Unique  outfit — Splendor  of  private  equipages — A  Siberian 
tarantass — Manner  of  hitching  the  horses — Speed  discomforts 
and  excitement  of  travel  on  tarantass — Seeing  Tartar  life  in 
its  simplicity — A  queer-looking  vehicle — Homely  but  effective 
— Experience  versus  philosophy — Furious  driving — The  village 
sheik — A  compatriot  of  the  great  Circassian  Schemyl — A 
Mohammedan — His  family  life — Beauty  and  filial  devotion  of 
his  children — His  wives — Influence  of  the  wife  among  the 
Kalmucks — Kirghiz  village — Hospitality  of  our  host — Our  Yam- 
stchik — His  style  and  skill  as  a  driver — Great  speed  of  horses 
without  use  of  whip — Return  to  Tomsk — Various  modes  of 
travel. 

I  HAD  occasion  before  to  refer  to  the  manner 
in  which  travel  is  effected  on  the  common  roads 
of  Russia.  It  is  the  same  here,  only  they  use 
vehicles  more  unique,  and  in  some  cases  decidedly 
indigenous.  As  in  European  Russia,  they  invari- 
ably drive  their  horses  abreast.  In  the  droshkies 
about  the  cities,  they  generally  use  for  common 
purposes  one  or  two  horses  only  ;  but  in  occasional 
turnouts,  where  display  is  the  fad  of  the  owner,  a 
troika  with  three  horses  is  used.  Travelling-  throuo-h 
the   country  is   done  with   three   to   seven   horses, 


TRAVEL    ON    COMMON    ROADS 


155 


accordine  to  the  condition  of  the  road  and  the 
number  of  passengers  to  be  carried  ;  for  it  must 
be  understood  that  the  driver  makes  the  same  time 
and  speed  over  rough  and  muddy  roads  as  over 
smooth  ones,  having  not  the  shghtest   regard  for 


ANOTHER    MODE    Ol      IKAMJ.LING    IN    SIBERIA 


either  the  safety  or  comfort  of  the  hickless  occu- 
pant. Nothing  can  surpass  the  chic  of  a  first-class 
and  well-appointed  Russian  or  Siberian  team  when 
in  full  motion.  The  horses  are  all  well  kept  and 
high  spirited.  The  centre  horse  is  hitched  be- 
tween shafts  to  guide  the  vehicle,  and  is  usually 
the   steadiest  and   most  vigorous  of  the   lot.      For 


156 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


the  outer  horses,  they  generally  select  very  hand- 
some and  alert  ones,  with  long,  flowing  manes  and 
tails  carefulh'  dressed.  B)'  some  peculiar  method 
of  reining   these  horses,  their  heads  are  drawn  low 


STREET    SCENE    IN    TOMSK 


down  and  outward,  causing  them  to  pull  at  an 
angle  from  those  In  the  middle.  The  cunning 
way  in  which  they  toss  their  pretty  little  heads  and 
their  other  coquettish  capers  as  they  plunge  along 


SEEING   TARTAR    LIFE  159 

at  a  full  gallop,  being  in  such  marked  contrast  with 
the  more  sturdy  and  uniform  gait  of  the  central 
horses,  impart  an  indescribable  style  and  dash  to 
the  outfit. 

Being  desirous  of  seeing  Tartar  life  in  its  sim- 
plest and  primitive  form,  untouched  by  the  ways 
of  the  city,  I  concluded  to  drive  to  a  somewhat 
noted  village  to  the  southwest  of  Tomsk,  where 
the  camel  trains  from  Samarkand  to  Irkutsk  via 
Semipalatinsk  cross  those  from  the  China  border 
going  northwest  to  Petropavlovsk.  Being  limited 
in  time,  as  I  desired  to  take  the  first  train  east- 
ward, that  was  announced  to  leave  in  a  few  days, 
I  instructed  my  guide  to  procure  me  a  comfort- 
able and  suitable  outfit  for  the  expedition,  and  to 
arrange  for  our  departure  at  an  early  hour. 
Having  had  a  recent  rain,  and  the  roads  therefore 
being  somewhat  heavy,  he  advised  the  use  of  a 
tarantass,  with  five  horses,  for  a  portion  of  the 
way,  until  the  lighter  roads  on  the  higher  lands 
were  reached,  when  the  journey  could  be  completed 
with  three  horses. 

On  driving  up  in  the  morning,  I  took  a  swift 
glance  at  the  strange-looking  vehicle,  and  my 
guide  looked  at  me  with  a  suspicious  smile.  I 
had  previously  seen  and  travelled  in  the  strange 
enough  looking  droshkies  and  troikas,  but  the 
sudden    apparition   of    this    nondescript    took   me 


i6o 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


completely  aback.  I  said  to  my  guide  :  "  I  know 
you  speak  English  well  enough,  but  I  doubt  your 
Russian,  as  this  driver  has  evidently  misunder- 
stood your  order,  for  instead  of  a  tarantass,  he  has 


NATIVE    WAITING    FOR    FERRY    ON    TOM    RIVER 

brought  me  a  specimen  from  some  museum  of 
natural  history,  as  it  looks  more  like  a  fossil  skel- 
eton of  the  paleozoic  age,  mounted  on  wheels,  than 
a  vehicle  to  make  a  long  and  tedious  journey  in." 
It  looked  as  if  the  owner  had  built  it  in  his  back 


A    SIBERIAN    TARANTASS 


i6i 


yard,  with  an  inch  auger  and  a  hatchet.  With 
many  hvely  gestures,  and,  I  suppose,  choice  and 
vigorous  Tartar,  he  informed  mv  o^uide  that  it  was 
a  real  tarantass,  a  true  Siberian  tarantass,  in  fact, 
the  best  and  most  comfortable  in  the  whole  city. 


m 

^tft^     Miii^> 

^ 

tadw  ^m     t''?yf 

1 

91 

^^^^^^^^K  ^^^^^1 

CROSSING    TOM    RIVER,   SIBERIA,    ON   A    RUDE    FERRY-BOAT 


and  that  it  was  perfectly  safe.  I  despair  of 
worthily  describing  this  strange  assemblage  of 
parts,  the  intricate  network  of  poles,  braces,  and 
ribs,  all  lashed  and  loound  together  with  leather 
thongs,  and  not  a  nail  or  bolt  in  it.  Excepting  the 
linch-pin    and    the    tires    on    the    wheels,    I    don't 


i62  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

believe  there  was  an  ounce  of  iron  in  its  whole 
composition.  It  seemed  to  me  it  was  in  immi- 
nent clanger  of  rattling  to  pieces  like  a  child's 
toy  house. 

It  was  wholly  without  springs,  and  to  break  the 
shock  due  to  inequalities  of  the  road,  reliance  was 
placed  entirely  on  the  pliability  of  the  structure 
and  the  elasticity  of  the  almost  rigid  poles  upon 
which  the  body  was  mounted.  To  a  rather  con- 
temptuous look,  born  of  a  remembrance  of  our  own 
mighty  achievements  in  iron  and  steel  in  the  West, 
he  replied  that  the  vehicle  was  well  constructed, 
and  that  it  was  all  right,  and,  indeed,  to  perform 
the  services  required  of  it.  it  could  be  made  in  no 
other  way.  Alas,  for  the  previsions  of  human  wis- 
dom !  The  event  proved  tnat  he  was  correct,  and 
furnished  additional  evidence  that  the  crude  re- 
sults of  a  blind  and  awkward  experience  often 
upset  the  refined  deductions  of  a  speculative  phi- 
losophy. After  being  thumped  and  bumped  about 
for  twenty-four  hours,  I  came  to  have  more  respect 
for  the  skill  that  put  the  parts  together  so  as  to 
safely  yield  to  the  irregularities  of  the  road,  which 
must  certainly  prove  fatal  to  one  rigidly  con- 
structed. 

In  fact,  this  was  illustrated  a  few  days  later  in 
an  uncomfortable  manner  when,  taking  another 
tarantass   of   a   new   pattern,  equipped   with    steel 


OLD    AND    NEW    TARANTASS 


163 


axles,  we  had  not  driven  a  mile  before  one  of  the 
axles  snapped  short  off  near  the  wheel,  bringing  us 
down  in  one  common  ruin,  and  we  were  obliged  to 
complete  our  journey  in  the  old  reliable  one.      The 


AT    THE    POST-HOUSE 


body  of  our  vehicle  was  a  sort  of  shallow  basket 
and  without  seats.  It  was  filled  with  ha}-,  on  which 
you  sit  in  the  bottom  in  a  half-reclining  position. 
I  had  no  sooner  nestled  myself  down  in  the  hay 


i64  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

than  the  driver  leaped  into  his  seat  and  the  horses 
suddenly  dashed  into  such  a  furious  pace  as  to 
well-nigh  jerk  me  out  of  the  vehicle  and  wrench 
my  spine  from  my  body. 

The  rain  of  the  previous  night  had  caused  the 
road  to  be  cut  into  many  deep  ruts  and  into  what 
we  call  in  the  West  "  chuck  holes."  I  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  injunction  to  my  guide  to  make 
good  time  was  being  only  too  literally  followed  by 
the  driver.  Off  he  flew  at  a  full  gallop,  the  horses 
going  literally  ventre  a  terre,  just  as  if  he  were 
driving  over  the  finest  roads  of  France.  All  pro- 
tests were  unavailing,  for  I  afterwards  learned  that 
before  starting  he  had  stoutly  recruited  himself 
from  his  bottle  of  vodka,  which  stuck  conspicuously 
out  of  his  pocket.  I  also  felt  somewhat  reassured 
when  my  guide  told  me  that  it  was  quite  the  cus- 
tom in  this  country  to  drive  in  this  manner  on  a 
long  trip,  when  good  time  was  required.  On  reach- 
ing the  first  village  where  relays  were  to  be  pro- 
vided, I  found  that  we  had  covered  a  distance  of 
nearly  twenty  versts — almost  fourteen  miles — in  a 
trifle  over  an  hour. 

After  refreshing  ourselves  with  a  cup  of  tea 
from  the  ubiquitous  samovar,  which  you  find 
everywhere,  we  resumed  our  journey.  On  the 
roads  becominsj  smoother,  we  reduced  our  team  to 
three   horses,   and  without   any  abatement   of  our 


A    ROUGH    JOURNEY 


167 


pace  we  finall\-  reached  our  destination,  where  I 
alighted  to  take  an  inventory  of  ni\-  damaged 
anatomy.      There  was  no   means   of    knowing  the 


RUSSIAN    VIT.LAGE    ON    POST-ROUTE,    SOUTH    OF    TOMSK,   SllJEKlA 


distance,  of  course,  but,  judging  trom  ni)'  teehngs, 
I  should  think  it  was  a  thousand  miles,  more  or 
less. 

On  arrival,  as  is  the  custom  of  these  }:)eoi)l(',  the 
sheik    of    tJK;    villai^'e   took    charge    of    us.      Beinu" 


i68 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


the  important  person^ig'e  here,  his  house  was  of 
pretentious  proportions  and  constructed  of  hewed 
logs  much  after  the  Russian  custom,  forming-  a 
large  square  which  enclosed  a  rectangular  space. 
He  was  evidently  a   man   not   only  of  much   influ- 


READY    TO    START.       AT  THE  rOST-HOUSE,   ON  POST-ROUTE  SOUTH  OF  TOMSK, 
IN    DIRECTION    TOWARD    SEMIP ALATINSK 


ence,  but  also  of  great  wealth,  for  he  pointed  with 
pride  to  his  great  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep  on  the  adjacent  plains.  He  informed  us 
that  he  was  a  compatriot  of  Schemyl,  and  fought 
with  that  celebrated  chieftain  ao;ainst  the  Musco- 


CATHEDRA  I,    IN    TOMSK 


WITH    A    MOHAMMEDAN    TARTAR 


171 


vite.  He  also  exhibited  with  much  pride  a  medal 
g-iven  him  by  the  present  Czar  when  as  Crown 
Prince  he  visited  this  reijion,  and  whose  etiide  he 
was.      He  at  once  extended   those  little  courtesies 


STREET    SCENE    IX    TOMSK 


and    substantial   comforts    that    ha\e    made    these 
people  so  famous  for  their  hospitality. 

I  had  no  sooner  entered   his  apartments  than    I 
discovered,    by    the    familiar  appointments    of    his 


172  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

hoLiseholcI,  that  he  was  a  INIuhaninicdaii.  He  at 
once,  as  is  the  manner  of  these  people,  brought 
in  and  introduced  liis  children,  of  whom  he  was 
intensely  fond,  an  affection  fully  reciprocated  by 
them,  a  characteristic  which  I  long  since  observed 
is  true  of  all  Asiatics.  He  had  two  most  lovely 
little  boys  of  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age,  and  a 
daughter  of  surpassing  beauty. 

As  he  himself  and  his  favorite  wife — for  he  had 
several — were  of  Caucasian  descent,  she  reflected 
in  the  highest  degree  the  exquisite  beauty  for 
which  her  race  is  noted.  The  inimitable  purity  of 
her  complexion  ;  the  soft,  dreamy  eyes  of  the  Cir- 
cassian ;  her  delightful  naivete  of  manner,  com- 
bined with  an  exquisite  Oriental  costume,  made 
her  a  veritable  Lalla  Rookh.  In  a  short  time  the 
mother  appeared,  a  stately,  matronly  lady  ;  ■  for, 
although  having  three  or  four  wives,  like  so 
many  Mohammedans,  he  has  one  who  is  the  wife 
who  shares  with  him  the  duties  and  honors  of 
the  household. 

After  drinking  the  tea  and  eating  the  sweet- 
meats they  invariably  offer,  I  requested  my  guide 
to  say  to  him  that,  being  from  the  far-off  land  of 
America,  I  would  be  pleased  to  be  permitted  to 
take  a  photograph  of  his  family,  as  I  had  a  camera 
with  me.  Knowino-  that  it  is  asfainst  the  tenets 
of  the   Koran   to   in   any  way  reproduce  in  picture 


A    KIRGHIZ    VILLAGE  175 

the  human  form,  I  was  doubtful  of  his  consenting 
to  so  extraordinary  a  proceeding.  After  a  long- 
hesitation,  he  requested  that  he  might  consult  his 
wife. 

It  is  surprising  what  an  influence  the  wife  pos- 
sesses in  this  polygamous  country.  I  am  told  that 
among  the  Kalmuck  Tartars  the  husband  will  not 
sell  even  a  sheep  without  first  consulting  her.  He 
finally  replied  that  the  Koran  did  indeed  forbid 
the  making  of  pictures  of  themselves,  but  it  did 
not  say  that  an  American  could  not  photograph 
them.  Gladly  accepting  the  soundness  of  this 
subtle  distinction,  I  had  m)-  guide  quickly  photo- 
graph the  group. 

The  village,  like  all  true  Kirghiz  villages,  is  com- 
posed of  a  cluster  of  the  round  felt  tents  or  yurts 
I  have  already  referred  to.  A  beautiful  little 
mosque,  built  of  something  like  adobe,  rises  con- 
spicuously from  the  assemblage  of  tents.  They 
tend  their  flocks  on  the  distant  steppes,  and  are 
superb  horsemen.  Before  the  building  of  the 
railwa)-,  which  has  given  them  a  nearer  market, 
their  traffic  was  conducted  at  Samarkand  in  the 
south  and  Kurgan  in  the  northwest. 

After  taking  man)'  views  of  caravans,  costumes, 
tents,  etc.,  we  prepared  for  our  return.  As  is  the 
custom,  there  was  preliminar)'  to  this  an  exchange 
of    small    presents  with   the   host    and    his    family 


176  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

He  wanted  particularly  to  know  my  address  in 
Moscow,  as  he  desired  to  send  me  there,  in  the 
form  of  some  substantial  present,  a  token  of  his 
regards.  We  left  carrvino'  with  us  a  most  aofree- 
able  impression  of  the  rude  but  sincere  hospitality 
of  these  people. 

Our  driver  was  a  full  Kalmuck.  As  his  race, 
unlike  the  Kirghiz,  devote  their  attention  almost 
wholly  to  the  rearing  of  horses,  they  are  therefore 
experts  in  all  that  appertains  to  that  noble  animal. 
It  was  truly  wonderful  the  way  he  handled  his  un- 
wieldly  team.  The  trappings  of  his  harness  were 
like  the  rigging  of  a  ship.  I  marveled  how  he  man- 
aged when  driving  at  such  a  great  speed  that  the)- 
did  not  become  a  hopeless  tangle.  As  he  never 
used  a  whip,  making  with  his  mouth  simply  an 
occasional  buzzino-  sound,  I  am  still  wondering- 
how  he  so  silently  and  quietly  urged  his  horses 
into  such  a  furious  gait,  which  they  seldom  broke. 
His  posture  when  driving  at  full  speed,  the  ease 
and  grace  with  which  he  controlled  the  reins  in 
his  well-filled  hands,  gave  a  st\-le  that  might  well 
be  the  despair  of  any  fashionable  whip  of  London 
or  New  York.  I  have  traveled  in  California 
stages,  Japanese  jinrikshas,  Arabian  caravans,  and 
Hindoo  ox-garries,  but  I  must  sav  that  a  Siberian 
tarantass,  engineered  by  a  Kalmuck  Yamstchik  with 
a  little  vodka  for  fuel,  easilv  beats  the  record. 


ON   THE    RACE-COURSE 


179 


At  the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  from 
Tomsk  there  is  a  splendid  race-course,  at  which 
excellent  meetings  are  often  held.  Being  the  sea- 
son when  the  great  annual  event  was  to  occur,  I 
visited  the  course,  that  I   might  study  the  sporting- 


ox   THE   TURF   AT   TOMSK 


side  of  life  in  this  remote  reofion.  Alon^r  the 
whole  route  I  was  surprised  to  see  the  road  liter- 
ally crowded  with  superb  equipages,  filled  with 
ladies  and  gentlemen  evidently  of  the  very  best 
class.  Many  of  the  ladies  were  exquisitely  cos- 
tumed,   obviously    in    what    was     the    very    latest 


i8o  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

product   of   Parisian  art.      The    roadside  was  well 
lined   with   pedestrians  wending  their  way  to   the 
races.      In  fact,  were  it   not  for  strong  local  pecu- 
liarities and  colorincr,  that   reminded   one  that  he 
was  in  a  far-off   inter-Asiatic  city,  one  might  easily 
imaofine  that  he  was  on  the  road  to  the  Saratooa 
races,  or  to    Epsom  Downs.      Here,   as   in   almost 
every  place   in    Russian  possessions,  we  were  con- 
stantly surprised  to  find  how  closely  the  people  of 
this  great  empire  follow  the  customs  and  progress, 
and  adopt  the  conveniences  and  improvements,  of 
other  countries.      The  vehicles  used  on  the  course 
I    found,    to   my   astonishment,   were   of    the   very 
latest  and  best  patterns  to  be  found   in   the   most 
progressive  and  up-to-date  countries.      I   found  in 
Omsk,  Tomsk,  and  other  Siberian  towns  that  rub- 
ber tires  were  in  such  oreneral  use  as  to  attract  no 
attention.      In  fact,  I  believe  that  in  Moscow  and 
St.  Petersburg  this  useful  and  almost  novel  device 
is  in  more  general  use  than  in   either    Paris,  Lon- 
don, or  New  York.      The  races  here  were   mainh' 
/     running  and  trotting.      I  was   especially  interested 
\     in  a  runninor   race  where   little   Tartar  bovs  were 
)     the   riders.      They  rode   bare-backed,   and   coming 
I     of  a  race  who   almost  live  on  horseback,  the  skill 
'      and   agility   they  very  naturally  displayed  was   at 
once   surprising  and  amusing.      The  crowd   at  the 
\    races,    being   of   the    usual   mixed   character,    was. 


DEPORTMENT   OF   THE    PEOPLE 


1B3 


however,  excellent  in  its  deportment.  In  truth, 
I  have  never  seen  a  more  quiet,  peaceful,  and 
orderly   assemblage   of   people   on   any   public  oc- 


STREET    SCENE    IN    TOMSK 


casion.  What  surprised  me  g'reath'  was  the  al- 
most entire  absence  of  either  betting  or  intoxi- 
cation, as  I  was  somehow  led  into  the  belief  that 
the  Russians  were  o-reat  o-amblers  as  well  as  drink- 


I 


J 84  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

ers,  and  expected  to  find  here  striking  exhibi- 
tions of  both. 

Krasno)-arsk  is  on  the  Yenisei  River  and  is 
practically  now  the  end  of  the  Siberian  railwa)-, 
at  least  so  far  as  passenger  traffic  is  concerned. 
Tomsk  is  the  terminus  of  the  present  through 
passenger  service,  from  which  place,  however,  an 
ordinary  train  is  run  about  once  a  week  to  the 
Yenisei  River.  Although  the  track  is  laid  for 
nearly  600  miles  further  eastward  to  Lake  Baikal 
and  near  Irkutsk,  only  an  occasional  mixed  freight 
and  passenger  train  is  put  on  this  section  ;  but 
no  one  can  tell  when  it  is  to  depart — a  fact  only 
made  known  by  the  officials  three  or  four  days  in 
advance.'  Travel,  therefore,  from  here  eastward 
becomes  most  uncertain  as  well  as  very  uncom- 
fortable. 

There  is  no  bridge  over  the  Yenisei,  the  cross- 
ing at  present  being  done  on  a  rather  rude  and 
imperfect  ferry.  They  are  busily  engaged  in  the 
construction  of  a  handsome  iron  bridge  nearly  a 
mile  in  length.  It  will  be  completed  in  a  few 
months,  when  it  will  be  possible  to  make  a  con- 
tinuous journey  on  a  fairly  comfortable  through 
train  to  Irkutsk  and  Lake  Baikal,  a  distance  of 
nearly  4,000  miles  east  of  Moscow. 

The  gold  mines  here  and  in  the  hills  beyond 
furnish    some    measure   of    varied    interest    to   the 


MINES    EAST    OF   THE   YENISEI 


187 


weary  and  expectant  traveller.  They  are  mainly 
placer  mines,  but  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Altai 
Mountains,  which  the  road  approaches  near  Irkutsk, 
quartz   mining  is  being  developed.      The  mining 


RAILWAY  STATION  ON  SIBERIAN  RAILWAY,  BETWEEN  THE  Olil  AND  TOM 
RIVERS,  ABOUT  ONE  THOUSAND  ONE  HUNDRED  MILES  EAST  OF  THE 
URAL   MOUNTAINS 

interests  generally  are  said  to  be  rapidly  growing, 
with  much  promise  for  the  future.  Being  largely 
the  propert}'  of  the  government,  but  few  details 
concerning  them  can  be  obtained  as  to  their  future 
possibilities,  as  they  are  shrouded  with  the  usual 
official  secrecy  of  this  countr\'. 


i88  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

As  I  have  now  travelled  about  3,000  miles  in  Si- 
beria by  raihva)',  troika,  tarantass,  and  otherwise,  I 
am  debating-  in  my  mind  whether  I  shall  proceed 
farther  eastward,  or  begin  my  return  from  this 
ret^ion.  It  is  possible  to  go  some  hundreds  of 
miles  farther  on  by  rail,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  what 
one  sees  will  be  an  adequate  reward  for  the  delays 
and  hardships  encountered.  I  am  told  that,  for  the 
most  part,  the  country  and  scenery  are  quite  the 
same  as  I  have  been  looking  at  for  weeks — the 
same  succession  of  fertile  plains,  with  their  won- 
drous orrowth  of  crrass,  bedecked  at  times  bv  a  sea 
of  flowers,  and  stretching  far  away  to  the  horizon 
like  a  billowy  ocean  ;  the  same  crowds  of  emigrants 
in  streams  and  train-loads  to  the  country  beyond, 
and  the  same  embryo  towns  springing  up  every- 
where like  mushrooms  from  the  earth  ;  all  of 
which,  however  surprising  and  interesting  it  may 
be  in  the  outstart,  becomes  at  last  a  wearisome 
monotony. 

Another  consideration  influences  my  return  with- 
out ofoine  farther  eastward.  I  desire  to  consume 
several  days  in  an  examination  of  the  larger  towns 
on  the  route,  which  I  had  not  the  opportunity  of 
doing  on  my  way  hither.  It  is,  moreover,  my  in- 
tention to  leave  the  railway  at  Kurgan,  and  cut 
across  the  country  to  the  Caspian  Sea  by  the  route 
followed  by  the  camel  trains  between  those  points. 


RETURN    WESTWARD  191 

It  follows  the  Tobol  River  a  hundred  miles  or  so, 
and  then  crosses  the  Kirghiz  steppes,  finally  reach- 
ing the  Caspian  Sea,  where  the  ships  leave  for 
Baku.  The  distance  is  about  800  miles,  and  as 
the  roads  are  said  to  be  fairly  good,  the  jour- 
ney can  be  comfortably  made  in  a  little  over  a 
week.  Crossing  the  Caspian  Sea,  I  will  go  through 
the  Caucasus,  said  to  be  the  loveliest  mountain 
scenery  in  the  world  ;  then  via  Tiflis  to  Batoum  ; 
from  thence  to  Rostoff  on  the  Don,  and  to  Moscow 
and  St.  Petersburg.  I  will  then  have  completed, 
in  so  far  as  is  practicable,  a  tour  of  a  large  part  of 
what  is  destined  to  become  the  mightiest  empire 
on  the  globe. 


IX 


Return  westward — Route  across  the  Kirghiz  steppes  to  the  Caspian 
Sea — Down  the  Volga  River  to  Astrakhan — Rise  and  commer- 
cial importance  of  that  city — ^Modern  trade  diversion  and  its 
effects — Russia  a  land  of  fairs — Nijni  Novgorod  and  its  great 
fair — Kharkov,  Ilinsk,  and  other  leading  fairs — Preferred  route 
across  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Central  Asia — Importance  of  the 
Volga  River  as  a  means  of  transportation — Numerous  fleets  of 
coal-oil  barges — Statistics  of  freight  traffic  on  the  Volga  and 
Onega  system — Partiality  of  Russians  for  American  products 
and  methods. 

Astrakhan,  September,  1898. 

Returning  westward,  I  found  on  inquiry  at  Kur- 
o-an  that  the  route  I  had  intended  taking  from  that 
town  to  the  Caucusus  via  the  Caspian  Sea,  while 
easily  accomplished  in  eight  days,  was  likely  to 
prove  devoid  of  interest,  unless  one  is  supposed 
never  to  tire  of  what  is  wholl)-  rural   and   pastoral. 

There  are  no  cities  of  importance  on  the  entire 
route,  only  a  few  Russian  villag"es  settled  by 
recent  immigrants  into  that  region  from  the  older 
and  congested  districts  of  European  Russia,  numer- 
ous Tartar  auls,  and  an  occasional  caravansary  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  many  camel  trains  that 
travel  over  this  route,    of  which    I   have  seen  here 


DOWN    THE    VOLGA    RIVER 


195 


and    in    other    quarters    of    the    globe   more    than 
enough, 

I,  therefore,  came  westward  to   the   point  where 
the  Siberian  railway  tirst  touches  the  \^olo-a  Ri\-er  at 


ON    THE    VOLGA    RIVER 


Samara.  From  that  town  I  came  on  one  of  the 
multitude  of  splendid  passenger  steamers  that  ply 
this  might)-  river — the  Mississippi  of  Russia — to 
Astrakhan  at  the  head  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  a  dis- 
tance of  over  1,000  miles. 


196 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


This  is  a  fine  old  city  that  justly  ranks  as  a  very 
ancient  one,  dating  in  its  origin  close  back  to  the 
Christian  era.  It  has  a  population  of  about  150,- 
000,  of  such  complex  nature  as  might  be  expected 
at  a  point  where  the  commercial  advantages  belong- 


FIRE   WORSHIPPERS     TEMPLE   IN   ASTRAKHAN 


ing  to  it  have  caused  the  mixed  people  of  Asia  to 
converge  through  centuries  for  the  purposes  of 
trade. 

It  has  many  well-paved  streets,  and  handsome 
public  and  business  buildings.  One  of  the  churches 
most  noted  in  all  Russia  for  its  imposing  and  ex- 


CITY    OF    ASTRAKHAN 


199 


pensive  interior  decorations  is  here.  The  cit)'  is 
well  supplied  with  street  railways,  water-works, 
etc.,  and   the   g'lare   of  the   electric   light   indicates 


SCENE    OX    THE    I.ANDINC    A  I'    ASIKAKHAN 

that  it  is  well  provided  with  many  of  the  up-to-date 
luxuries  and  accessories  of  other  more  progressive 
and  pretentious  cities.  It  owes  its  origin  and  im- 
portance to  the  fact  that  for  centuries  it  was  the 
main  point  of  commt^rcial  contact  between  the 
merchants  of  Central  Asia  and  those  of  the  western 


200  SIBERIA    AND    CP:NTRAL    ASIA 

world,  being',  in  fact,  the  entrepot  where  Oriental 
products  were  concentrated  for  Western  distribu- 
tion. The  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  one  hand,  fiirnishc-d 
for  Central  Asia  a  means  for  transporting'  its  prod- 
ucts to  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  whence  on  that 
river  and  its  tributaries  they  found  their  way  north- 
ward and  westward  to  the  European  markets. 

As  before  the  days  of  steamships  and  railways 
Astrakhan  had  practicalh'  a  moncjpoly  of  Central 
Asian  traffic,  she  continued  to  grow  and  prosper 
until  the  development  of  railways  in  Russia  and  a 
more  perfect  system  of  river  and  canal  transporta- 
tion made  Nijni  Novgorod  her  great  competitor 
as  a  grand  distributing  point  of  eastern  and  west- 
ern products,  which,  through  her  wonderful  annual 
markets,  she  held  for  many  years. 

Such,  however,  is  the  rapidity  with  which  trade 
and  its  methods  change  in  these  modern  days,  that 
Nijni  in  turn  has  lost  much  of  its  importance,  and 
at  no  distant  day  will  cease  largely  to  occupy  its 
present  position  as  an  intermediate  depot  between 
Asia  and  Europe,  an  advantage  that  gave  first  to 
Astrakhan,  and  afterwards  to  Nijni,  such  commer- 
cial prominence  and  wondrous  growth.  Such  are 
the  ample  and  ever-increasing  facilities  for  trade 
now  supplied  by  railways,  steamships,  telegraphs, 
etc.,  that  the  merchants  of  the  extreme  East  and 
West   can   now  rapidly  and  directly   communicate, 


RUSSIAN    FAIRS  203 

or  easily  meet,  in  the  marts  of  their  respective 
countries,  so  that  an  intermediate  trading  point  or 
centre  is  fast  becoming-  wholly  unnecessary. 

Russia  is  essentially  a  land  of  fairs,  there  being 
held  in  the  various  villages,  towns,  and  cities 
throughout  the  empire  nearly  3,000  every  year,  at 
which  over  300,000,000  dollars'  worth  of  goods 
and  merchandize  is  sold.  Of  these,  Nijni  Nov- 
gorod, two  hundred  miles  east  of  Moscow,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Okra  and  Volga  rivers,  stands  tirst 
in  rank  ;  and,  indeed,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
the  world  has  never  seen  anything  more  exten- 
sive and  important  than  the  annual  fairs  held  in 
this  city  since  1S17.  At  Irbit,  in  the  government 
of  Perm,  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  there  Is  also  held 
an  annual  fair  of  much  importance,  at  which  the 
sales  amount  to  over  30,000,000  dollars  annually. 

With  the  fairs  at  Kharkov,  Ilinsk,  Romny, 
and  a  few  others,  a  list  would  be  completed  of 
those  of  the  leading-  class  or  first  magnitude.  Of 
the  second  class  there  are  fifty;  there  are  sixt)'  of 
the  third,  and  over  300  of  the  fourth  class.  The 
balance,  of  near!)-  2,500,  are  those  held  in  the 
towns,  villages,  and  communes.  The  Nijni  Nov- 
gorod fair  is  officially  in  operation  scarcely  five 
weeks,  in  the  months  of  July  and  August.  The 
important  position  it  holds  in  the  internal  trade  of 
Russia  will  be  realized   from   the  fact  that   in   this 


204 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


short    time    nearly    100,000,000    dollars'   worth   of 
wares  and  merchandise  is  sold. 

It  is  my  present  intention  to  go  from   here  via 


TOWN    OX    THE    "\'OLr,A    RH'KR    liETWEF.N    KAZAN    AND    NIJNT    NOA'GOKDD 

the  Caspian  Sea  to  Baku,  a  distance  of  600  miles. 
From  there,  crossing-  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Uzum 
Ada,  I  am  in  hopes  of  getting  a  permit  to  go  on 
the  military  railway  that  runs  through  the  trans- 
Caspian    region    to    Merv,     Bokhara,    Samarkand, 


TRAFFIC    ON    THE    VOLGA 


207 


and  Tashkent,  right  into  the  very  heart  of  Asia — 
a  trip  that  is  rarely  made,  and  until  recent  years 
a  region  almost  inaccessible  to  people  of  the  West, 
Samarkand,  especially  on  account  of  its  antiquities 
and  its  having  been  the  capital  of  Tamerlane,  I 
desire  very  much  to  visit. 

Returnino-  to  Baku,  I  will  take  one  of  the  steam- 
ers  that  run  hence  daily  to  Lenkoran,  in  Northern 
Persia,  through  which  I  will  return  via  Erivan,  at 
the  base  of  Mt.  Ararat,  which  city  is  the  present 
capital  of  Armenia.  From  there  I  will  go  to 
Tiflis,  through  Kars  and  Erzerum  ;  then  passing 
over  the  Caucasian  Mountains  to  Vladikavkaz,  I 
will  take  the  railway  there  for  Moscow,  hoping  to 
arrive  in  that  city  about  the  middle  or  end  of 
November. 

As,  for  the  present  at  least,  it  is  my  intention  to 
write  only  of  my  observations  and  experiences  in 
Siberia,  I  must,  therefore,  forego  the  temptation 
to  give  in  detail,  and  refer  only  briefly  to,  the  ob- 
jects of  interests  one  sees  on  a  voyage  down  the 
Volga.  I  may,  however,  say  in  passing  that  the 
trade  and  travel  on  this  great  highway  are  little 
short  of  wonderful.  The  large,  comfortable  pas- 
senger boats,  of  best  pattern  and  most  approved 
machinery,  can  be  numbered  almost  by  hundreds, 
and  the  steam,  freight,  and  tugboats  that  swarm 
on  this  great  river,  almost  b\'  thousands. 


201 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


These,  with  the  numerous  fleets  of  barges  with 
coal  oil  from  Baku,  and  other  merchandise,  o-ive 
more  the  appearance  of  the  Hudson  between  New 


K 

!IS8IB8S?r=  s.-a.-.-,. 

^\    '^•■'    VV-J.;. 

PICTURESQUE    FORMATION    OX    THE    A^OLGA    RIVER,   TWO    HUNDRED    MILES 
ABOVE    ASTRAKHAN 

York  and  Yonkers,  than  of  a  river  traversing  the 
open  steppes  of  Russia. 

Statistics  show  that  the  waterways  forming  the 
Volga-Onega  system  carry  yearly  over  15,000,000 
tons  of   freicrht.       Of   orrain   alone,   this   river  and 


BOATS    ON   THE   VOLGA 


21  I 


its  tributaries  carry  over  100,000,000  bushels  an- 
nually. Along  with  many  evidences  one  meets 
everywhere   in    Russia   of    her   partiality   for    and 


WATERMELON    MARKET    AT    LANDING    ON    THE    VOLGA    RIVEK,    KEIWEEN 
SIMBIRSK    AND    SARATOV 


admiration  of  things  American,  I  would  say  that 
the  boats  used  on  the  Volga  are  almost  exclusively 
those  of  the  American  pattern. 


X 


Development  of  Siberian  agricultural  resources — Its  effect  upon  sim- 
ilar interests  in  other  countries — Prime  conditions  governing 
the  future  reclamation  of  lands  in  Siberia — Waterways  of  Rus- 
sia— Careful  development  of  same — River  system  in  Siberia — 
Severity  of  winters  restrict  their  use — Season  of  navigation 
— Omsk  as  a  centre  of  a  vast  cereal  region — Its  possible  connec- 
tions by  water  and  rail  with  foreign  countries — Necessity  for 
greater  transportation  facilities  in  Western  Siberia — New  route 
being  created  from  Omsk  to  the  Baltic — New  route  between 
Russia  and  Western  Siberia — From  Omsk  to  Havre  or  London 
— Comparative  distances. 

The  general  facts  and  data  I  have  given  respect- 
ing the  possible  agricultural  resources  of  Siberia 
very  naturally  will  suggest  the  pertinent  inquiry 
as  to  what  influence  their  ultimate  development 
will  have  upon  similar  interests  in  other  countries. 
To  a  nation  like  our  own,  where  agriculture  is  the 
dominant  industry,  and  upon  the  healthfulness  of 
which  depends  almost  all  other  industrial  interests, 
and  whose  exportable  surplus  forms  our  most  val- 
uable national  resource,  this  inquiry  possesses 
exceptional  interest  and  importance. 

As  the  prime  factor  in  this  question  is  the  rapid- 
ity  with    which   these    lands    can    be   developed — 


SETTLEMENT    OF    LANDS    IN    SIBERIA    215 


this  o-overning  the  possible  exportable  surplus — an 
inquiry  into  this  subject  will  fall  naturall)'  under 
several  heads,  the  chief  being  transportation  facil- 
ities    for     internal     and    external     purposes,     the 


TOWN    OX    THE    TOWER    VOT.r,  \    RIVER 

policy  of  the  government  as  to  the  settlement 
of  the  lands,  and  the  relation  of  growth  of  pop- 
ulation to  any  possible  rate  of  agricultural  devel- 
opment. 

I  have  heretofore  stated  that  the   Russian   (jov- 


2l6 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


eninient  has  under  contemplation  a  somewliat 
extended  system  of  railways  for  the  whole  of 
Siberia,  both  for  strateL;'ical  and  commercial  pur- 
poses. They,  however,  by  no  means  rely  wholl)' 
on  railways  for  transportation. 


VIEW    ACROSS    TOM    RIVER,   SIBERIA 


Like  all  European  countries,  the  utmost  care  is 
here  taken  for  the  preservation,  development,  and 
improvement  of  her  natural  and  artificial  water- 
ways. She  is,  in  addition  to  the  most  careful  use 
of  all  her  rivers,  contemplatin^r  vast  schemes  of 
canal  construction  to  supplement  and  interweave 
her  river  courses.      As  a  result,  not  onlv  the  main 


RIVERS    OF    SIBERIA  217 

steins,  but  even  the  smallest  tributaries  of  her 
large  rivers  are  made  serviceable  for  the  uses  of 
transportation  in  the  highest  degree,  so  that  in- 
ternal distribution  of  tonnage  is  effected  through- 
out the  country  by  a  very  intricate  network  of 
navigable  rivers  and  improved  streamlets,  often 
linked  together  b\'  suitable  canals. 

So  pronounced  is  the  policy  favoring  water 
transportation  here,  that  one  never  sees  what  has 
so  often  happened  in  our  own  country,  and  which 
is  much  to  be  deplored — the  subordination  of  nat- 
ural and  artificial  waterways  to  other  methods  of 
transportation,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  their  total 
destruction. 

As  I  have  before  pointed  out,  the  whole  of  Si- 
beria is  traversed  from  south  to  north  by  large 
rivers,  at  intervals  of  a  few  hundred  miles.  These 
rivers  invariably  spread  out  fan-like  into  numerous 
branches,  all  of  which  are  naviofable,  or  can  be 
rendered  so,  through  much  of  their  length  and 
during  a  large  portion  of  the  year.  To  almost  the 
southern  boundary  of  Siberia,  therefore,  water 
transportation  can  ultimately  be  effected. 

\^ast  as  is  this  natural  system  of  waterways,  its 
efficienc)"  will,  of  course,  be  somewhat  curtailed  by 
the  severitv  of  the  winters  in  Northern  Siberia. 
But  under  the  wise  fostering  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment, there  will  no   doubt   in    time  be   rendered  as 


2l8 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


efficient  a  s\stein  ot  rivers  and  canals  as  now  exists 
in  European  Russia,  and  wliich  plays  so  important 
a  part  in  her  internal  commerce. 

These  rivers,  it  is  said,  are  open   for  navigation 


FERRY-BOAT    ON    TO>t    RIVER,    SIBERIA 

usually  from  about  the  middle  of  April  or  ist  of 
May  to  the  ist  of  October.  This  grives  quite  six 
months  of  continuous  navigation,  which  is  not 
greatly  exceeded  by  our  great  chain  of  northern 
lakes,    and  canals   such    as   the    Erie,   which,  while 


OMSK    AS    A    GRAIN    CENTRE 


219 


open,  have  such  an  important  bearing-  on  rates  and 
the  freight  traffic  of  the  whole  country. 

As  the  Obi  and  Yenisei  rivers  with  their  tribu- 


HOUSES  FOR  STORAGE  OF  GRAIN  AND  WHEAT  IN  SACKS  AWAITING  SHIP- 
MENT AT  NEW  RAILWAY  STATION,  EIGHT  HUNDRED  MILES  EAST 
OF    THE    URAL    MOUNTAINS,    ON    TRANS-SIBERIAN    RAILWAY 

taries  permeate  the  entire  western  half  of  Siberia, 
and  the  distance  of  Omsk,  the  centre  of  the  great 
grain  and  pasture  lands  of  that  country,  from  Euro- 
pean markets  is  about   5,000  miles  via  the  Arctic 


220 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Sea,  therefore  for  nearl)-  six  months  an  area  of 
agricultural  lands  nearl)'  equal  in  extent  to  the 
arable  lands  of  the  United  States  will  be  in  almost 


iv^J^^I 


SCENE    ON    THE    IRTISH    RIVER,    SIBERIA 


as  direct  and  continuous  communication  with 
Western  Europe  as  is  Chicago  via  the  Great 
Lakes  and  vSt.  Lawrence  River. 

The  necessity  of  providing  more  adequate  means 
for  transporting  the  surplus  agricultural   products 


NEW   TRANSPORTATION    LINES  221 

already  created  by  the  Siberian  railway  has  fully 
impressed  itself  on  the  Russian  mind.  The  present 
congested  condition  of  that  line,  which  is  likely 
to  grow  worse,  has  caused  the  projection  of  several 
competing  routes,  to  give  this  much-needed  relief. 


VIEW   ACROSS    THE    IRTISH    RIVER,    SIBERIA 

A  railway  is  already  under  construction  running 
directly  eastward  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Perm,  to 
connect  with  the  railwa)'  now  running  from  that 
city  over  the  Ural  Mountains  to  Tinmen,  on  the 
headwaters  of  the  Tobol  River. 

This  line  will,  therefore,  provide  direct  communi- 
cation  between  Omsk  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  in  com- 


222 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


petition  with  the  Siberian  hne,  wliich  it  will  parallel 
300  or  400  miles  to  the  north.  Inck^ed,  for  the 
season  of  river  navigation  this  route  is  now  prac- 
tically available. 

On  my  wa}'  eastward,  I  fell  in  with  a  prominent 


■^S    THE    TOM    l;i 


Russian  grain  merchant,  who  was  on  his  way  to 
Omsk  to  establish  a  line  of  transportation  to  the 
Baltic,  in  order  to  drain  some  of  the  large  surplus 
of  grain  already  accumulated  on  the  line  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railway,  which  for  want  of  suffi- 
cient facilities  it  finds  itself  incapable  of  carrying. 
He  described   to   me   in   detail   the   proposed   new 


NEW   TRANSPORTATION   LINES  223 

route,  which  was  down  the  Irtish  River  from  Omsk 
and  up  the  Tobol  to  Tiumen,  a  distance  of  about 
800  miles.  From  Tiumen,  connection  is  to  be 
made  by  rail  to  Perm  on  the  Kama  River,  a  distance 
of  500  miles. 

At  the  latter  point,  boats  run  down  the  Kama 
River  and  up  the  Volga  to  the  head  of  navigation 
of  that  river,  where,  by  a  canal  to  the  Ladoga  Sea 
and  through  the  Neva,  a  continuous  waterway  is 
provided  between  Perm  and  the  Baltic  Sea.  Thus, 
by  this  route,  excepting  the  intermediate  link  of  500 
miles  of  railroad,  Omsk  can  be  placed,  via  the 
Baltic,  in  direct  communication  by  water  with  West- 
ern Europe  for  at  least  six  months  of  the  year,  the 
whole  distance  beinor  somewhat  less  than  from 
Chicago  to  Liverpool  or  Havre. 


XI 


Transportation  route  in  Soutliwestern  Siberia — Route  between 
Caspian  and  Black  seas— To  connect  the  Volga  and  Don 
rivers — All-waterway  between  Caspian  Sea  and  Europe — Neg- 
lect of  American  waterways — Careful  preservation  of  same  in 
Europe — Methods  of  utilizing  rivers  in  Europe  for  transporta- 
tion purposes — Use  of  the  Seine  in  France — Through  the  heart 
of  France  in  a  boat — Neglect  and  decay  of  American  rivers  as 
lines  of  transport — Railways  versus  water  transportation — What 
would  result  from  thorough  development  of  American  river 
system — Russia's  real  progress — Great  foresight — Not  doomed 
to  the  fate  of  China — Russia  in  the  field  of  diplomacy — The  offi- 
cial class — Redundant  population — Its  danger  to  all  nations — 
Unwisdom  of  developing  urban  at  the  expense  of  the  rural  popu- 
lation— Results  in  the  necessity  for  land  grabbing — Wise  policy 
underlying  settlement  of  Siberia — Plan  of  settlement — Conserv- 
ing old  vested  interests — Deterrent  influences  in  settlement  of 
Siberia — Rapid  growth  of  population — Its  current  necessities 
— Probable  effect  of  Siberia  upon  markets  in  other  countries. 

There  are  yet  two  other  routes  in  prospect, 
which,  when  completed,  will  be  both  short  and  di- 
rect. By  a  system  of  railways  in  Southwestern 
Siberia,  of  500  to  1,500  miles  in  length,  reinforced 
by  canal  and  river  courses,  a  thorough  drainage 
of  tonnage  to  the  east  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
can  be  effected  from  that  vast  region,  being  in 
extent  equal  to  the  Middle  and  Western  States  of 


VARIOUS    LINES    OF    TRANSPORTATION  227 

our  country,  and  with  a  productive  capacity  equal 
to  one-half  that  of  the  whole  United  States. 
From  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea  ships 
can  be  run  at  all  seasons  to  Baku  in  the  Cau- 
casus. 

By  the  Trans-Caucasian  railway,  a  distance  of  a 
little  less  than  500  miles,  the  Caspian  Sea  is  con- 
nected with  the  Black  Sea.  This  will,  therefore, 
make  an  open-water  route  the  whole  season  from 
the  Caspian  to  Western  Europe,  a  distance  of 
about  5,500  miles.  Save  the  connecting  link  of 
railway  from  Baku  to  Batoum,  a  distance  of  about 
500  miles,  there  will,  therefore,  be  a  continuous 
water  route  from  Southwestern  Siberia  to  Europe, 
from  the  east  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  other  scheme,  while  of  the  highest  order, 
both  from  an  engineering-  point  of  view  and  com- 
mercial as  well,  and  while  fully  surveyed  and  esti- 
mated, is  yet  "  under  the  red  cloth,"  as  the  Rus- 
sians say,  meaning  that  it  is  still  enveloped  in  the 
shrouded  councils  of  "  The  Ministry  of  Transpor- 
tation and  Communication." 

At  Tzaritzin,  about  300  miles  above  Astra- 
khan, the  Volga  River  approaches  within  fifty 
miles  of  the  Don  River,  running  northward 
from  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  proposed  to  cut  a 
canal  across  this  intervening  space  to  connect 
the  two   rivers,   both   of   which   will   be    navigable 


228  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

to  this  point  three-fourths  of  the  year.  I^y  this 
route,  therefore,  a  continuous  waterwa)-  can  be 
estabhshecl  for  nine  months  in  the  year  be- 
tween the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  markets  of  West- 
ern Europe,  via  the  Volga  and  Don  rivers  and 
the  Black  Sea. 

When  the  water  and  railway  systems  of  W^est- 
ern  Siberia  are  perfected,  as  they  will  be  in  due 
time,  that  great  country,  with  its  vast  and  yet  un- 
touched agricultural  resources,  will  be  placed  quite 
as  near  the  surplus-consuming  centres  of  Europe 
as  the  centre  of  the  great  surplus-producing  region 
of  the  United  States. 

I  desire  at  this  point  to  make  especial  reference 
to  what  I  have  so  frequently  spoken  of  hereto- 
fore, viz.:  the  lamentable  neglect  of  our  splendid 
system  of  waterways,  which  stands  in  such  start- 
ling contrast  with  the  careful  and  thorough  devel- 
opment and  preservation  of  the  natural  and  arti- 
ficial water-courses  in  almost  all  other  countries. 
To  the  observing  American  tourist,  whose  mind  is 
at  all  bent  upon  a  study  of  the  material  interests 
and  resources  of  the  countries  through  which  he 
travels,  nothing  strikes  him  with  such  force — 
with  the  sole  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  splendid 
common  roads — as  the  careful  and  thorough  man- 
ner in  which  every  river  or  stream  of  any  size  is 
utilized  for  transportation  purposes. 


IMPROVEiMENT    OF    RIVERS  229 

Everywhere  one  sees  the  river  beds  deepened 
by  dredging,  the  channel  widened,  the  banks  care- 
fully walled,  and  the  shores  suitably  jettied,  and 
every  means  employed  to  render  them  suitable  for 
navigation.  So  thcjroughly  is  this  done,  especially 
in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  Austria,  and  to  a  great 
extent  in  this  countr)',  that  little  bits  of  streams 
only  a  few  rods  wide  are  b)-  suitable  Bash  dams 
and  other  means  converted  into  excellent  channels 
for  boats. 

It  is  thus  that  in  France  the  Seine  is  made 
navigable  from  the  sea  to  Tonnerre,  where  it  be- 
comes an  insignificant  streamlet.  From  this  point, 
over  the  Burgund)-  hills,  a  canal  of  about  sixt)' 
miles  forms  a  connecting  link  with  the  headwaters 
of  the  Rhone  flowing  southward.  A  boat,  there- 
fore, of  considerable  tonnage  can  pass  right  through 
the  centre  of  France  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

By  the  same  means,  as  I  have  before  stated,  a 
continuous  waterway  is  provided  through  the 
middle  of  European  Russia  from  the  Baltic  to 
the  Caspian  Sea. 

It  is  with  sorrow  mingled  with  disgust  that  one; 
recalls  the  shameless  neglect  of  our  might)  ri\cr 
systems,  the  grandest  on  the  globe — the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Ohio,  the  Missouri,  and  scores  of  other 
rivers  with  th(Mr  tributaries — and  e\"en  the;  com- 
plete   abandonment    of   the    \\\abash,    the    Illinois, 


230  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

and  many  others  that  in  early  days  were  so  valu- 
able and  serviceable,  and  could  still  by  a  little 
attention  be  so  maintained. 

What  can  be  said  of  the  policy  of  a  country 
that  will  allow  such  an  important  trade  artery  as 
the  old  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal  to  become  extinct  ? 
You  and  I  well  know  that  it  was  this  valuable 
waterway,  running  from  Terre  Haute  to  Toledo, 
that  developed  and  enriched  the  great  Wabash 
valley,  which  remained  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
and  flourishing  regions  of  the  whole  West  until 
the  withering  touch  of  the  overstocked  and  much 
manipulated  Wabash  Railway  sapped  and  absorbed 
its  accumulated  resources. 

With  the  noblest  river  on  the  globe  permeating 
with  its  many  tributaries  almost  the  entire  region 
from  whence  our  exportable  agricultural  surplus 
has  been  derived,  and  will  in  future  continue 
wholly  to  be  derived,  and  which  could  be  carried 
entirely  by  water  to  the  consumptive  centres  of 
Europe,  we  to-day  discover  the  astounding  situa- 
tion that  our  country  is  almost  exclusively  de- 
pendent upon  the  railways  to  carry  this  great 
surplus  to  the  seaboard. 

Were  our  main  rivers  only,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  smaller  streams  that  other  countries  would 
readily  render  serviceable,  improved  and  utilized 
to  anything  like  the  degree  of  the   Seine,  Rhone, 


THE    POLICY    OF    RUSSIA  231 

Garonne,  and  Marne  of  France  ;  the  Elbe,  Rhine, 
and  other  streams  of  Germany  ;  the  Danube,  the 
Don,  the  Volga ;  and  for  that  matter  even  the 
Obi  of  Siberia,  no  nation  on  the  globe  would 
possess  such  facilities  for  cheap  transportation  to 
foreign  countries ;  so  that  no  matter  what  natural 
advantages  of  agriculture  they  might  possess  in 
Siberia,  Argentina,  India,  or  elsewhere,  we  would 
be  placed  beyond  competition  in   foreign  markets. 

When  will  those  patriotic  spirits  who  have  the 
public  ear,  and  who  are  ever  on  the  alert  to  safe- 
guard the  public  right  and  welfare,  cry  out  against 
those  influences  and  abnormal  causes  that  have 
resulted  in  creating  a  situation  so  exceptional  as 
to  be  well-nigh  criminal  ? 

Whatever  may  be  the  disparaging  comparisons 
of  the  slower  methods  and  material  progress  of 
Russia  with  the  more  florid  achievements  of  other 
nations  in  recent  years,  it  is  certain  that  her  prog- 
ress is  on  such  lasting,  conservative,  and  secure 
lines  that  in  the  end.  when  viewed  in  its  entirety, 
it  may  prove  a  more  real  advance  than  others 
more  rapid  and  consequently  less  stable.  What- 
ever may  be  her  final  and  declared  policy,  she 
adheres  to  it  with  a  steadfastness  and  pertinacity 
unchangeable  and  unconquerable. 

Like  China,  she  is  preeminently  an  agricultural 
nation,  that  interest  absorbing  nearlv  four-fifths  of 


232  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

her  energies  and  nearl\-  nine-tenths  of  li(;r  popula- 
tion. This  great  interest  she  fosters  with  the 
wisest  foresight  and  the  most  jealous  care. 

Unhke  her  great  neighbor,  however,  who  had 
come  to  rely  upon  the  virtues  and  power  of  peace, 
Russia  has  long  foreseen  that  military  strength 
alone  could  preserve  a  national  autonomy  against 
the  forces  of  foreiirn  aofcrression  and  orreed, 
marshalled  under  the  specious  banner  of  philan- 
thropy and  progress.  This  fortunate  foresight, 
no  doubt,  saves  her  from  the  fate  of  wholesale 
spoliation  that  now  threatens  China. 

While  Russia  has  the  most  numerous  army 
in  the  world,  and  has  created  the  largest  national 
military  element  to  draw  from  in  case  of  emer- 
gency, still  her  policy  is  not  to  use  her  mili- 
tary power  for  conquest,  but  mainly  for  defence. 
Her  great  acquisitions  of  territory,  amounting  to 
one-seventh  of  the  whole  globe,  have  been  ac- 
quired much  more  by  diplomac}'  in  the  cabinet 
than  by  power  in  the  field.  Yet,  as  the  stern 
and  memorable  records  of  Borodino  and  the 
bloody  fields  of  the  Crimea  show,  when  called 
upon  to  defend  her  country,  her  skill  and  valor 
in  the  field  are  not  inferior  to  her  ability  in  the 
realm  of  diplomacy. 

Never,  perhaps,  in  the  history  of  the  human 
race   has    any   nation    acquired   such   vast   posses- 


OFFICIAL    CLASS    OF    RUSSIA  233 

sions,  or  developed  so  large  a  population,  equal  to 
the  Roman  Empire  in  its  palmiest  days,  with  such 
little  bloodshed  and  such  few  destructive  wars. 

The  one  crreat  national  characteristic  of  Russia 
seems  to  be  foresight.  She  deals  not  so  much  with 
the  present  as  the  future,  not  with  the  proximate 
and  immediate  so  much  as  with  the  remote  and 
ultimate  ;  and  it  seems  to  be  a  fixed  policy  never  to 
conuuit  herself  to  any  scheme  or  plan  unless  the 
ultimate  results  are  so  well  forecast  as  to  render 
any  retrogression  or  retracing  of  her  steps  unnec- 
essary. 

Moreover,  there  is  perhaps  no  nation  whose  offi- 
cial classes  are  so  well  informed,  or  who  so  minutcK' 
understand  the  commercial,  industrial,  and  even 
the  political  policies  of  other  nations,  and  the  real 
workine  and  ultimate  trend  of  their  institutions. 
It  was,  no  doubt,  this  penetrating  foresight  that 
caused  her,  long  ago,  to  devise  her  policy  of  terri- 
torial acquisition,  under  which  she  laid  aside  for 
future  use  such  vast,  accessible,  and  contiguous 
areas  of  countr)'  which  to  the  rest  of  the  world 
seemed  then  useless. 

The  pressure  of  a  redundant  population  always 
has  been,  and  perhaps  will  remain,  the  chief  peril 
threatening  the  stabilit\'  of  every  nation.  Fhis 
danger  becomes  intensified  when  a  nation  1)\'  con- 
quests, or    ill-ordered    hscal    j)olicies,   develops    its 


234  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

commercial,  manufacturing-,  and  urban  population 
at  the  expense  of  rural  life. 

In  the  cry,  "  Give  us  bread  and  amusement,"  that 
was  current  in  Rome  during-  the  Caesars,  is  to  be 
found  the  germ  of  a  force  far  more  potent  and  fatal 
to  that  empire  than  the  rapacity  of  the  Hun  or 
the  military  prowess  of  the  Goth. 

Even  now,  the  same  cause  is  impelling  some 
of  the  foremost  nations  to  resort  to  the  doubtful 
expedient  of  forcing  themselves  upon  peaceful, 
remote,  and  older  nations,  in  the  hope  thereby 
of  finding  relief  from  pressing  internal  forces. 

The  acquisition  of  Siberia  and  Central  Asia,  a 
practically  uninhabited  and  contiguous  country, 
having  over  7,000,000  square  miles  with  less  than 
12,000,000  inhabitants,  was,  no  doubt,  the  result 
of  Russian  foresight  to  secure  near  at  home,  and 
adjacent,  a  suitable  reservoir  into  which  to  pour 
her  future  and  increasing  surplus  population,  pro- 
viding thereby  for  centuries  a  safety  valve  for  her 
empire.  This  lies  at  the  very  bottom  of  her 
settlement  and  development  of  Siberia  and  the 
Central  Asian  provinces,  reserving  them  as  she 
does  for  the  steadily  increasing  future  necessi- 
ties of  the  older  portions  of  her  empire,  rather 
than  following  the  example  of  other  nations,  who, 
by  a  rapid  development  of  new  territory,  quick- 
ened  into  an    undue,    intense,    and    transient    life 


SETTLEMENT    OF   SIBERIAN    LANDS      235 

other  subsidiary  and  dependent  interests  and 
industries. 

From  what  I  can  learn,  it  will  probably  be  the 
policy  of  Russia  to  make  the  settlement  and  de- 
velopment of  Siberia  commensurate  with  the  neces- 
sities arising  out  of  the  rapid  growth  of  population 
in  the  parent  country,  which,  however,  at  its  present 
rate,  promises  to  be  of  no  mean  order. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  only  citizens  of  Russia  that 
can  acquire  lands  in  Siberia.  A  systematic  plan  is 
pursued  by  the  government  in  the  distribution  and 
disposition  of  the  lands.  Wherever  there  is  found 
an  overpopulated  district  in  European  Russia, 
influences  are  at  once  used  to  cause  an  emigration 
of  a  portion  of  such  congested  district.  Govern- 
ment agents  are  sent  to  Siberia  to  look  about  and 
secure  for  such  emigrants  the  most  suitable  locali- 
ties,  due  regard  being  had  for  racial  peculiarities 
and  proclivities,  and  even  for  the  geographical 
locality  of  the  intending  emigrant.  As  an  induce- 
ment, nearly  eighty  acres  of  land  is  alloted  to  each 
settler,  and  as  a  further  stimulus  the  orovernment 
in  many  cases  loans  100  rubles  for  a  term  of  years, 
without  interest,  to  bona  fide  settlers  upon  the 
lands. 

As  I  have  before  stated.  Western  Siberia  lies 
practically  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude 
as  European  Russia;  the  southern  part  touching  a 


236  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

lower  latitude,  possesses,  therefore,  a  more  g^enial 
climate.  The  soil  and  ph\sical  characteristics  are 
even  more  desirable,  the  onK"  drawback  beini^  its 
greater  distance  from  the  market.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  great  flow  of 
immigrants  has  already  set  into  that  countr)-,  as  is 
evidenced  on  all  hands  by  crowded  trains,  newly 
ploughed  fields,  and  numerous  embr)-o  towns  and 
villages. 

Already  the  government  is  considering  the  im- 
portant question  as  to  what  is  to  be  the  probable 
influence  of  the  relativeh'  cheaper  products  of 
these  new  lands,  so  readih' acquired  and  so  cheaply 
cultivated,  upon  the  agricultural  interests  of  the 
older  portions  of  the  empire,  where  lands  have 
been  lonofer  cultivated  and  fixed  investments  are 
greater. 

Being  desirous  of  conserving  the  vested  interests 
and  rights  of  the  agricultural  classes  in  European 
Russia  which  have  been  the  laborious  creation  of 
centuries,  she  does  not  lose  sight  of  the  injurious 
effect  that  may  arise  to  them  by  the  inflow  of  the 
products  of  these  lands,  the  gift  of  the  nation,  the 
government  thus  becoming  itself  an  indirect  party 
to  the  sudden  creation  of  an  unjust  and  perhaps 
injurious  competition. 

As  a  measure  designed  to  aid  in  overcoming  such 
an   effect,  and   to   preserve   a  just   equalit\",    I    was 


OCCUPATION    OF    LANDS    BY   TARTARS     237 

informed  that  the  government  contemplates  giving 
rebates  upon  grain  and  otlier  agricultural  rates  for 
all  foreign  shipments,  and  maintaining  higher  rates 
on  those  of  a  domestic  character.  This  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  government  to  shield  the  in- 
terests of  the  agriculturists  in  the  older  and  longer 
cultivated  regions  of  European  Russia,  against  a 
too  violent  competition  created  by  the  free  use  of 
property  common  to  all,  can  be  reckoned  with  as 
one  of  the  influences  that  will  limit  and  control 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  lands  of  Siberia  will 
be  occupied  and  reclaimed. 

Another  restraint  upon  the  rapid  occupation  of 
these  lands  lies  in  the  tenure  of  a  rather  sparse  but 
evenly  distributed  Tartar  element.  Unlike  our 
American  Indians,  who  possessed  the  waste  lands 
of  the  West  and  lived  exclusively  by  the  chase, 
the  Tartars  who  spread  over  the  greater  portion 
of  Western  Siberia  are  of  a  pastoral  character, 
havino"  immense  herds  of  domestic  animals  in 
great  variety  ;  they  will,  therefore,  hold  the  lands 
occupied  by  their  ancestors  from  time  immemorial 
with  greater  tenacity,  a  juster  right,  and  firmer 
tenure.  To  dispossess  them,  therefore,  will  not 
be  the  easy  problem  that  it  was  in  the  case  of  our 
own  Aborigines. 

In  view  of  these  deterrent  causes,  it  is  not  likely 
that    the    lands   of   Siberia  will    be    occupied   and 


238 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


developed  in  the  (|uick  and  wholesale  manner 
witnessed  in  our  own  and  other  new  countries, 
even  though  the  Russian  government  were  desir- 


TOWN    ON   THE   VOLGA    RIA'ER 


ous  of  following  our  example,  a  not  probable  con- 
tingency. 

As  the  Russian  is  probably  the  most  prolific 
race  on  the  globe,  an  abundant  supply  of  land 
must  be  kept  available  to  meet  this  current  want, 


INCREASE  OF  POPULATION  239 

since  the  cultivable  lands  of  European  Russia  are 
already  closely  worked  up.  The  present  increase 
of  population  is  reckoned  at  2,000,000  per  annum, 
which  at  the  same  ratio  will  be  swelled  to  3,000,- 
000  within  another  generation.  As  the  unit 
requirement  must  be  estimated  at  about  four  or 
five  acres  per  capita,  there  is,  therefore,  in  sight 
an  annual  requirement  of  from  8,000,000  to  12,- 
000,000  acres  to  supply  this  want,  the  annual 
reclamation  of  which  will  be  in  itself  an  achieve- 
ment of  no  ordinary  character. 

Having  due  regard,  therefore,  for  the  variety  of 
restraining  influences  and  home  necessities,  and 
while  in  certain  localities  there  may  be  at  times 
excessive  production,  it  does  not  seem  probable 
that  the  surplus  from  this  region,  taken  during  a 
period  of  average  production,  will  so  far  outrun 
the  increased  demand  due  to  increased  popula- 
tion as  to  leave  such  a  residuum  for  export  as 
will  have  any  sensible  effect  upon  western  prices. 


XII 


Russian  life  in  Siberia — Visiting  various  villages — Siberian  towns 
and  villages — Mostly  frame  or  log  houses — Efforts  at  ornamenta- 
tion—  Number  and  appointment  of  rooms — Clothing  of  the 
natives — The  icon — The  Russian  peasant  most  religious — In  the 
peasant's  home — A  mark  of  respect  never  to  be  omitted — Cus- 
tom of  recognizing  the  icon  in  Russia  universal — Fare  of  the 
peasant — A  singular  bathroom — The  drink  of  the  peasant — 
Two  kinds  of  quass — Vodka,  its  use  and  effects — Salutary  regu- 
lations by  the  government — Worthy  of  imitation  by  other  na- 
tions— Siberia  the  land  of  the  exile — Erroneous  impression  of 
the  traveller — Courtesy  of  Russian  officials — Abolition  of  serf- 
dom— Its  effects  contrasted  with  abolition  of  slavery  in  America 
— Administration  of  justice — Respect  for  law  and  authority — ■ 
Difficulties  encountered  by  Russia  in  its  development — Obstacles 
to  its  progress — Remarkable  national  development — Banish- 
ment of  bank  officials  to  Siberia — Their  status  during  and  after 
term  of  sentence — Punished  for  fraud  at  gaming — Not  a  good 
country  for  irregular  practices — Passport  system — Citizens  of 
Russia  required  to  have  passport — Registration  of  same,  fee, 
etc. — Effects  of  the  passport  system — Special  passport  required 
to  leave  Russia — Beneficial  results  of  same. 

Having  a  desire  to  become  familiar  with  the 
life  of  the  lower  class  of  Russians  in  Siberia,  re- 
mote from  the  influences  that  centre  about  lines 
of  railwa^^  while  in  Tomsk  I  made  a  journey  into 
the  interior  on  the  route  to  Tobolsk,  which  in  a 
creneral  wav  follows  the  vallev  of  the   Obi.       This 


SIBERIAN    TOWNS 


241 


led   me   through   many  villages  of  a   more  or  less 
primitive  and  interesting  character. 

These    Siberian    towns    are,    exclusively,    mere 
assemblages  of  farm-houses  with   the   usual   build- 


VILLAGE    IX    SIBERIA,   IJETWEEX    TOMSK    AND    THE    YENISEI    RIVER 


ings  for  stock,  etc.,  and  are  in  all  respects  similar 
to  their  prototypes  in  European  Russia.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  dwellings  and  outhouses  are  built  of 
logs,  obtained  from  the  strip  of  forest  that  fringes 

most  of  the  rivers.      Excepting   in   the  large  towns 

16 


242  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

aiul  rail\va\'  sLatioiis,  I  do  noL  hclic\c  I  saw  a 
singli-  l)iiildin^"  of  stone  or  brick.  Being  con- 
structed generalh'  with  high,  stt^ep  roofs,  liea\\' 
cornices,  and  deep  projections,  with  other  crude 
efforts  at  ornamentation,  they  very  often  combine 
a  pleasing  external  effect  with  much  internal  con- 
venience and  comfort,  being  as  a  rule  warm  in 
winter  and  cool  in  summer. 

The  houses  are  usually  of  three  rooms :  the 
kitchen,  dining-room,  and  bed-room,  the  latter  used 
also  as  a  reception-room.  They  have  plain  wooden 
floors,  and  the  furniture  is  of  the  simplest  kind 
and  very  limited. 

One  thing  I  noticed  especially  :  that,  while  the 
clothing  was  coarse,  the  people  were  always  warmly 
clad,  the  men  invariably  wearing  high-top  boots, 
made  generally  of  leather,  but  often  of  a  thick  felt, 
always  coming  well  up  to  the  knee. 

In  every  house,  without  exception,  one  discovers 
in  the  corner  of  each  room  the  ever-present  little 
ofllt  icon,  for  be  it  remembered  that  the  strouQ-est 
trait  of  the  Russian's  character  is  his  intense  reli- 
gious sentiment.  Unlike  many  other  countries, 
where  it  too  often  becomes  a  mere  formula  and 
even  a  convenience,  with  the  Russian  peasant  es- 
pecially it  is  a  part  of  his  life,  the  very  essence, 
in  fact,  of  his  inner  being.  What  is  not  the  least 
surprising    fact    is,   that   the   men    are   even    more 


DWELLING    HOUSES    IN   VILLAGES        245 

punctilious  in   their  observance  of  the    formalities 
of  the  church  than  the  women. 

Although    fairl)-    comfortable    lodging    can    be 
had  at  any  of  the  post-houses  on  the  main  roads, 


DWELLING-HOUSE    IN    SIIiEKL\N    VILLAGE,    ON    POST-ROUTE    FROM    TIAGA 
TO    TOMSK 


I,  however,  preferred  to  stop  in  the  humble  dwell- 
ings of  the  peasants,  whose  doors  are  alwa)-s  open 
to  the  stranger,  with  a  rude  though  sincere  hos- 
pitality. 

On  entering  a  dwelling  it  is  a  mark   of  respect, 


246 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


never  to  be  oniiUcd,  Lo  coiirtcousl)'  recognize;  the 
sacred  icon  that  always  han^^-s  conspicuous])'  on  the 
wall.       This  is  so  universal  a  custom  that,  throug-h- 


SIBF.RIAX    VILLAGE    IN    OBI    VALLEY 


out  Russia  everywhere,  in  all  public  buildings, 
stores,  banks,  counting-houses,  etc.,  the  men  in- 
variably uncover  their  heads  before  the  icon,  and 
so  remain  even  while  transacting-  business.  Re- 
ligion, therefore,  in    this   countrv  is  carried  contin- 


LIFE    OF    THE    PEASANT 


247 


uously  right  into  the  active,  busy  current  ot  human 
affairs  and  hfe. 

I  noticed  that,  on  entering- a  dwelling,  the  house- 
wife at  once  went  to  a  lartre  chest  and  took  out  a 
carpet,  which   she  spread  carefully  on   the   usually 


t^^l 


NEW    VILLAGK    IX    THE    VALLEY. OF    THE    TOM    RIVER,   SIHERLV 


bare  floor,  and  which  seems  to  be  reserved  for 
important  occasions.  The  samo\ar  is  at  once 
set  before  you,  as  all  Russians  are  inveterate  tea 
drinkers.  The  tea  is  of  a  good  quality,  coming 
from  China,  and  usualh'  compressed  in  th(»  form 
of  small  bricks. 

The  fare   of    the   peasant   is   simple  but   whole- 


248  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

some,  usually  of  rye  bread,  th()U!j;"li  often  of  the  most 
excellent  wheaten  variety,  with  splendid  soups  and 
meats.  On  account  of  the  abundance  of  pastur- 
age in  Siberia,  meats  of  all  kinds  come  readily 
within  reach  of  the  common  people.  The  best 
quality  of  beef  can  be  had  anywhere  on  the  Sibe- 
rian railway  for  a  little  over  two  cents  per  pound. 
Laree,  fine  bullocks  ready  for  the  market  can  be 
purchased  for  twenty  to  thirty  rubles,  or  twelve 
to  eighteen  dollars.  A  first-class  milk  cow  brings 
only  eight  to  fifteen  rubles.  A  pair  of  young 
chickens,  five  to  ten  cents.  A  brace  of  excellent 
ducks,  much  like  our  blue-winged  teal,  can  be  had 
for  ten  cents,  and  at  the  railway  restaurants  nicely 
roasted  for  eighteen  cents  apiece. 

In  almost  every  peasant  dwelling  a  large  baking 
oven  is  to  be  found  at  one  end  of  the  kitchen, 
made  of  thick  walls  of  brick  or  some  sort  of 
cement  composite.  As  it  usually  seemed  of  need- 
less size,  and  the  door  out  of  proportion  also,  and 
instead  of  the  usual  dome  form  was  flat  on  top, 
my  attention  was  so  attracted  that  I  was  led  to 
inquire  the  purpose  of  these  peculiarities.  I  was 
informed  that  it  was  not  only  used  for  baking  pur- 
poses, but  quite  often  served  as  a  hot  bath  as  well, 
straw  being  spread  on  the  oven  floor — previously 
heated  by  fagots  burned  within — for  the  protection 
of  the  bather,  who  crawls  into  the  open  door.       By 


FARE    OF   THE    PEASANT  249 

pouring-  water  on  the  heated  floor,  it  could  thus  be 
quickly  changed  from  a  hot-air  to  a  vapor  bath. 
During  the  winter,  bedding  is  spread  on  the  flat  top 
of  the  oven,  and,  h\  maintainincr  a  slow  fire  within, 
a  comfortable  warmth  is  imparted  even  in  nights  of 
extreme  cold. 

Besides  tea,  the  peasants  drink  large  quantities 
of  a  beverage  called  quass.  Of  this  there  are  two 
varieties,  one  extracted  from  a  small  berry  much 
like  the  cranberry,  that  grows  in  a  wild  state  in  the 
greatest  abundance.  The  juice  of  this  berry  is 
allowed  to  slightly  ferment,  producing  a  most  de- 
licious and  wholesome  drink.  Being  so  abundantly 
produced,  it  sells  for  only  a  few  copecks  a  bottle, 
and  is  therefore  universally  used. 

Another  variety  of  quass  is  made  by  passing  hot 
water  throue:h  toasted  bread  and  allowinq;  it  to 
slightly  ferment.  This  is  in  great  request  by  the 
peasantry,  being  a  most  wholesome  and  not  un- 
pleasant drink. 

Vodka,  here  as  in  every  part  of  Russia,  is  much 
used  by  all  classes  and  both  sexes,  old  and  young. 
It  is  distilled  from  crrain.  Beino-  of  strono-  alco- 
holic  properties,  it  is  highly  intoxicating,  and  it  is 
somewhat  remarkable  that  drunkenness  is  not  far 
more  prevalent,  considering  the  immense  quantity 
consumed  in  Russia.  Except  in  the  larger  cities, 
such   as  St.  Petersburfj  and   Moscow,  cases  of  in- 


\ 


250  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

toxicLition  arc  not  more  frcquentl)'  met  with  than 
in  Anglo-Saxon  communities. 

While  hastih'  referring"  to  the  local  and  personal 
proclivities  and  habits  of  these  people,  it  may 
be  well  to  briefly  glance  at  some  more  general 
practices  and  customs,  the  result  of  salutary  reg- 
ulations by  the  government. 

At  every  station  on  the  Siberian  railway — which, 
I  believe,  is  true  to  some  extent  on  all  Russian 
railways — there  is  placed  in  front  of  the  station, 
at  a  point  convenient  of  access  by  the  passen- 
gers, a  large  cask  of  cool  water,  that  has  been 
thoroughly  boiled,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  sta- 
tion-master to  see  that  a  liberal  supply  is  kept  up. 
This  is  free  to  all  passengers,  even  to  the  poorest 
emigrant,  whose  comfort  and  welfare  are  provided 
for  in  luany  ways  with  thoughtful  care. 

In  addition,  an  immense  samovar  is  also  placed 
in  front  of  the  station,  which  is  kept  full  of 
boiling  water  for  the  use  of  the  passengers  on 
the  trains.  As  they  almost  always  carry  a  supply 
of  tea  with  them,  they  are,  therefore,  enabled  at 
any  time  to  secure  hot  water,  which  they  take  into 
the  train,  and  thus  can  make  the  desired  quantum 
of  tea  at  their  leisure. 

I  am  also  informed  that  in  large  cities  like  St. 
Petersburg,  where  the  water  is  not  of  the  purest, 
it  is  the  duty  of  every  householder,  during  the  sum- 


A    WISE    REGULATION 


251 


mer,  to  place  a  suitable  vessel  in  tront  of  his 
house,  containing  boiled  water,  for  the  free  use  of 
the  passerby.  The  contents  of  the  vessel  must  be 
changed  daily.      If,  upon  inspection   by  the  proper 


CASK     OF    WATER     AT    STATION    OX    SIBERIAN    RAILWAY,    .SUPPLIED    WITH 
BOILED    WATER    FOR    USE    OF    PASSENGERS 


authorities,  a  supph'  is  found  wanting,  or,  upon 
analysis,  it  pro\es  inipure,  the  delinquent  is 
severely  punished. 

Were  such  wise  regulations  in  the  general  inter- 


252  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

est  and  welfare  adopted  by  some  other  nations 
who  lay  claim  to  advantages  of  a  superior  civi- 
lization, we  might  hear  less  of  "  Maidstone 
epidemics." 

So  much  has  been  written  about  Siberia,  "  the 
land  of  the  exile,"  and  so  many  gruesome  pictures 
cirawn  of  the  horrors  of  Russian  official  tyranny, 
that  to  the  uninitiated  Siberia  seems  a  dark,  for- 
bidding, and  forbidden  land  ;  so  that  the  newly 
arrived  traveller  almost  instinctively  grasps  his 
passport  at  the  very  sight  of  a  Russian  official. 

Fairness  and  candor  compel  me  to  say,  however, 
that  in  no  country  in  which  I  have  travelled  have 
I  seen  in  the  same  time  so  little  interference  by  the 
authorities  with  the  current  life  and  daily  affairs  of 
the  people.  In  fact,  I  do  not  believe  there  exists 
in  any  nation  a  body  of  officials  more  considerate 
and  courteous,  or  who  are  more  attentive  to  the 
wishes  and  interests  of  the  people,  from  the  highest 
to  the  lowest  station  in  life. 

The  time  was,  doubtless,  when  an  undue  espion- 
age and  the  exercise  of  what  was  perhaps  a 
despotic  authority  were  deemed  essential  for  the 
preservation  of  the  government  and  general  order, 
under  which  wrongs  and  even  cruel  practices 
may  have  arisen.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  scarcely  more  than  one  generation  has  passed 
since    one-half   of    her    population    was    suddenly 


EMANCIPATION    OF   THE    SERF  253 

chano-cd  from  a  servile  class  into  free  and  inde- 
pendent  citizens,  with  newly-acquired  power  and 
interests,  and  along-  with  them  new  duties  and 
obliofations. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  confusion  resulting  from 
a  sudden  transition  that  inverted  an  ancient  polit- 
ical and  social  structure,  mieht  eive  rise  to  such 
conditions  as  to  render  even  a  stern  exercise  of 
authority  a  necessity.  The  wonder  is,  that  any 
nation  could  survive  a  shock  so  violent  and  ex- 
treme, whatever  might  be  its  efforts  to  repress 
and  control  and  hold  in  check  the  forces  of  disso- 
lution and  disintegfration. 

To  realize  fully  the  difficulties  arising  from 
changes  so  rapid  and  fundamental,  we  have  but 
to  recall  the  newly-created  problems  and  difficul- 
ties in  our  own  country — which  are  unfortunately 
still  far  from  a  final  solution — growing  out  of  the 
enfranchisement  of  a  relatively  few  slaves.  We 
may  also  be  inclined  to  judge  less  severely  other 
nations  for  their  short-cominirs  if  we  brine  to 
remembrance  the  wrongs  perpetrated  by  the 
Northern  carpet-bag  governments  in  the  South 
during   the   days   of   reconstruction. 

Within  certain  limits  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
secure  and  the  freest  country  in  the  world;  for 
while  the  laws  are  rigorousl)-  executed  and  pun- 
ishment is  meted  out  with  appalling  certaint)',  the 


254  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

welfare  and  security  of  the  people  and  govern- 
ment seem  to  be  the  prime  motive  in  the  minds 
of  those  who  administer  the  law. 

All  trials  are  conducted  with  careful  delibera- 
tion, and  with  an  eye  to  secure  and  subserve 
strict  justice.  However  needless  and  harsh  the 
administration  of  justice  in  some  cases  may  seem 
to  be,  it  is  certain  that  the  swift,  wholesale,  and 
impartial  execution  of  their  salutary  laws  has 
established  a  condition  of  internal  peace  and 
security,  creating  respect  for  authority,  and  a 
recognition  of  just  reciprocal  rights  that  is  truly 
wonderful,  when  all  things  are  considered. 

To  realize  this  fully,  we  must  take  into  account 
the  vast  extent  of  the  country,  the  heterogeneous 
races  that  go  to  make  up  this  great  ethnical  com- 
posite, with  their  respective  rights,  customs,  tra- 
ditions, castes,  and  vested  interests — -the  outgrowth 
of  thousands  of  years  of  racial  development — all 
going  to  make  up  a  vast  mosaic  of  powerful  and 
conflicting  races,  with  almost  irreconcilable  antag- 
onisms and  interests. 

Perhaps  no  nation  has  ever  had  to  encounter,  to 
the  same  extent,  those  impediments  to  progress 
and  stable  growth  arising  out  of  the  necessity  of 
tearing  down  the  old  in  order  to  build  up  the  new — 
a  dilemma  so  well  defined  by  the  sa}'ing  that  "the 
o'ood   stands    in   the  wav   of  the    better."      In    no 


PUNISHMENT    OF    BANK    OFFICIALS      255 

nation,  perhaps,  has  the  problem  of  uniting  a  just 
government  and  hberal  institutions  with  the  im- 
pulse of  modern  change  and  progress  been  so  dif- 
ficult of  solution  as  in  this  great  empire.  That 
under  these  adverse  conditions  she  has  been  en- 
abled to  make  that  remarkable  advance  witnessed 
in  the  last  two  generations,  stands  as  a  marvel  in 
the  history  of  national  development. 

This  is  brought  to  our  minds  with  increased 
force  when  we  recall  the  fact  that  even  so  small 
and  compact  a  country  as  the  United  Kingdom, 
where  a  great  and  steady  advance  has  long  been 
made  in  industrial,  commercial,  and  political  life, 
ancient  rights  and  interests  and  traditions  have 
not  as  yet  been  reconciled  with  the  newer  order 
of  things,  nor  have  its  integral  parts  been  welded 
into  a  harmonious  whole,  as  the  present  state 
of    Ireland   shows. 

On  m)'  way  to  Tomsk  there  were,  among  the 
passengers  on  the  train,  a  man  and  wife,  both  of 
them  respectable  in  appearance  and  accomplished. 
Although  having  the  liberty  of  the  train,  their 
movements  seemed  under  restraint,  and  an  offi- 
cial was  always  hovering  conveniently  near.  In 
a  few  days  I  learned  that  the  man  was  on  his 
way  to  Tomsk  to  serve  out  a  ten  years'  banish- 
ment. He  was  formcrh'  teller  in  a  large  bank  in 
St.    Petersbure,    wliich     failed    disastroush'    some 


256  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

years  ago,  and  he  had  improperly  used  some  of  its 
funds.  Having  been  found  guilty,  after  a  search- 
ing trial  lasting  over  two  years,  he  was  banished 
to  Siberia  for  a  term  of  ten  years. 

While  he  will  be  allowed  his  liberty  in  that  city, 
he  will  not  be  permitted,  during  that  time,  to  go 
beyond  its  precincts.  The  governor  of  the  province 
can,  at  his  discretion,  transport  him  at  any  time  to 
the  most  remote  and  obscure  corner  of  his  orovern- 
ment.  He  will  be  allowed  no  social  privileges  what- 
ever, and  the  orace  of  the  authorities  will  be  assured 
only  by  his  excellent  behavior.  During  the  term 
of  his  sentence  he  will  be  practically  deprived  of  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizenship,  and  not 
allowed  to  engage  in  any  business  whatever.  His 
business  and  social  status  after  the  expiration  of 
his  sentence  will  depend  entirely  upon  his  conduct 
in  the  meanwhile. 

After  the  completion  of  the  term  of  his  banish- 
ment he  will  never  be  permitted  to  visit  St.  Peters- 
burg, Moscow,  or  any  other  large  city,  seaport,  or 
frontier  town  of  the  empire,  and  his  subsequent 
engagement  in  business  will  depend  wholly  upon 
the  decision   of  the   authorities. 

The  other  officials  of  this  unfortunate  bank, 
some  fifteen  in  number,  comprising  among  them 
many  men  of  great  wealth  and  highest  social  posi- 
tion, were,  in  virtue  of  their  more   important  offi- 


BANISHED    TO    SIBERIA  257 

cial  relation  to  the  bank,  adjudged  more  highly 
culpable.  They  were,  therefore,  punished  with 
corresponding  rigor  and  severity.  They  were 
banished  to  various  points  in  Siberia  for  a  term 
of  eighteen  years.  As  many  of  them  were  of  an 
advanced  age,  this  was,  in  most  cases,  tantamount 
to  a  life  sentence.  The  banishment  of  several 
was  supplemented  by  two  or  three  years  at  hard 
labor,  which  in  Russia  has  a  dismal  significance. 
One  was  sent  to  Omsk,  another  to  Tobolsk,  and 
the  rest  scattered  through  Siberia  in  more  or  less 
wretched  places,  according  to  the  degree  of  their 
crime.  One,  presumably  the  chief  offender,  was 
sent  to  Yakutsk,  right  in  the  heart  of  polar 
Siberia,  said  to  be  the  coldest  and  dreariest 
place  on  the  globe.  As  in  the  case  that  came 
under  my  notice,  these  condemned  officials,  even 
after  the  expiration  of  their  sentence,  will  not  be 
permitted  to  enter  or  visit  any  large  city  or  fron- 
tier town,  and  cannot  afrain  enoraore  in  business, 
excepting  by  the  grace  of  the  authorities — a  scant 
privilege  that  will  even  depend  upon  their  deport- 
ment while  servinof  their  sentence. 

Stopping  on  my  return  westward  at  a  town  on 
the  Volga,  in  European  Russia,  I  went  to  a  hotel 
to  await  the  arrival  of  the  steamer  that  was  to 
take  me  down  that  ri\er.  As  this  house  was  a 
large  one  and  well  appointed,  and  as  there  seemed 
17 


258  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

much  disorder  in  its  management,  I  in(juired  the 
cause;  and  was  informed  that  the  proprietor,  a 
man  of  much  wealth,  influence,  and  social  posi- 
tion, had  just  been  sentenced  to  ten  years'  ban- 
ishment to  Siberia,  one  year  of  which  was  at 
hard  labor.  Having  departed  on  his  melancholy 
journey  only  a  few  days  before,  the  disordered 
state  I  discovered  was  accounted  for. 

On  inquiry  as  to  the  nature  of  the  crime  he  had 
committed,  and  for  which  he  was  convicted  and 
so  severely  punished,  I  was  astounded  to  learn  that 
it  was  for  cheatino-  at  cards  at  the  ofamino-table. 

From  these  instances,  I  gathered  the  impression 
that  Russia  would  not  be  a  healthy  place  for  the 
Hooleys  of  England  and  the  professional  wreckers 
of  our  own  country  to  ply  their  profitable  vocation 
of  extracting  money  from  the  pockets  of  a  confid- 
ing and  trusting  public,  nor  for  the  respectable 
gentlemen  who  so  deftly  lift  their  neighbors'  money 
at  baccarat. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  country  in  the  world  where 
the  passport  system  is  so  deeply  grounded,  or 
where  it  is  so  thoroughly  carried  into  effect  as  in 
Russia.  Not  only  is  it  essential,  in  order  to  gain 
admission  into  this  country,  that  every  foreigner 
be  fortified  by  a  passport  issued  by  his  govern- 
ment, but  even  every  citizen  of  Russia  is  required 
to  possess  one  and  keep  it  conveniently  at  hand. 


RUSSIAN    PASSPORT    SYSTEM  259 

They  are  issued  to  Russian  citizens  for  one  year, 
and  must  be  promptly  renewed  annually. 

The  cost  is  from  five  to  twenty-five  rubles,  ac- 
cording to  the  class.  No  one,  not  even  a  citizen 
of  Russia,  can  go  from  one  city  or  localit)-  to  an- 
other with  the  intention  of  remaining  twent}'-four 
hours  without  showing  his  passport. 

No  sooner  does  one  arrive  at  a  hotel,  be  he  na- 
tive or  stranger,  than  his  passport  is  called  for.  It 
is  taken  to  the  public  headquarters  and  the  neces- 
sary registry  made,  for  which  a  registration  fee  of 
ten  cents  is  required.  Should  any  one  find  himself 
in  any  city  other  than  his  own  place  of  residence 
even  for  twenty-four  hours  without  a  passport,  he 
is  at  once  detained  by  the  police  until  a  satisfactory 
explanation  is  forthcoming.  If  satisfaction  can  be 
given  and  proof  of  good  citizenship  be  presented,  a 
new  passport  is  supplied  ;  otherwise  the  police  take 
permanent  charge  of  the  delinquent  and  his  case  is 
disposed  of  by  a  more  or  less  severe  punishment. 

It  is  thus  that  the  government  can  keep  a  com- 
plete record  of  all  its  citizens,  and  a  close  watch  on 
their  movements.  It  is,  moreover,  an  instrument 
that  greatly  aids  in  more  thoroughly  utilizing  all 
its  sources  of  energy,  and  in  knitting  more  effec- 
tively together  the  potencies  of  national  life  into 
a  compact,  mobile  whole,  leaving  no  loose  ends 
floatino"  about. 


26o  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

As  a  passport  is  required  to  gain  admission  into 
Russia,  so  is  one  essential  to  gain  permission  to 
leave  the  country.  Every  one,  foreigner  or  citizen, 
is  obliged  to  show  this  passport  on  arrival  at  the 
frontier  before  he  is  permitted  to  depart  from  Rus- 
sia. Under  these  conditions,  it  is  well  nigh  im- 
possible for  any  one  in  this  country  to  pull  a  bank 
or  wreck  a  railroad,  and  then  conveniently  skip 
over  the  border  to  enjoy  his  ill-gotten  gains  in 
other  lands. 


XIII 

Passenger  boats  on  the  Caspian  Sea — New  lines  of  steamers — Pe- 
trovsk,  on  the  Caspian — Excursion  into  the  mountains — New 
railway  line  to  Baku — Great  through  line  to  Central  Asia — Im- 
portant influence  of  the  Trans-Caspian  railway  upon  this  world's 
affairs — Extension  of  same  into  China — Distance  and  time  by 
this  route  to  China — Direct  and  short  route  to  Northern  India 
— Projected  line  of  railway  from  Orenburg  to  Tashkent — Ambi- 
tions of  Russia  in  a  new  field — Great  canal  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Baltic — Great  commercial  and  strategic  importance 
of  same — Steady  and  persistent  progress  of  Russia — Her  ad- 
vance not  rapid,  but  secure — Does  not  vaunt  her  enterprises 
— Effects  upon  political  world  of  Trans-Caspian  railway  to  be 
greater  than  the  Trans-Siberian  railway — New  route  from 
Merv  to  Herat — Its  probable  influence  on  Afghanistan — Pro- 
jected lines  into  Persia — Line  being  built  from  Armenia  to 
Northern  Persia— Important  results  to  arise  therefrom  in  that 
country— New  line  projected  from  Samarkand  southward  to 
Karshi — That  city  the  key  to  Northeastern  Afghanistan — Possi- 
bility of  formidable  attack  of  Russia  upon  Northern  India  via 
Central  Asia — No  combination  of  powers  could  stay  it — Unim- 
portant part  naval  forces  would  play  in  such  a  contest — Rus- 
sia's contiguous  territory  and  interior  operations  a  manifest 
advantage — Such  a  conflict  might  require  the  whole  power  of 
Great  Britain  to  repel — Russia's  peace  proposal — Her  sincerity 
in  same — Prefers  peaceful  methods  to  those  of  war — Her 
superior  strategical  position — May  not  Russia's  evident  advan- 
tage over  India  operate  to  preserve  peace  ? — The  fortunate 
position  of  America  in  the  event  of  a  great  Asiatic  war. 

Samarkand,  Central  Asia,   October,  1898. 
Besides   numerous  steam   and   sail   vessels   that 
carry  on  a  large  freight  traffic  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 


262 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


there  are  several  excellent  lines  of  passenger 
boats,  the  chief  one  being  the  Kavkaz  and  Mer- 
cury line.  This  company  is  constantly  adding 
new  and  well-equipped  steamers  to  accommodate 


THE   GREAT    PETROLEUM    CITY    OF   BAKU,    ON    THE   CASPIAN    SEA,    IN    THE 
EASTERN    CAUCASUS.       VIEW    FROM    THE    BAY 


its  rapidly  increasing  travel  and  traffic.  The 
steamers  of  this  line  call  at  the  larger  Russian 
towns  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  also  at  those  of 
Persia,  on  its  southern  border. 


LINES    OF    STEAMERS    ON    CASPIAN    SEA     265 

The  past  year  they  have  added  to  their  fleet 
two  screw  vessels  of  about  two  thousand  tons, 
fitted  up  with  every  modern  convenience,  and  which 
readily  make  sixteen  knots  per  hour.  On  one  of 
these  I  embarked  at  Astrakhan  for  Baku,  the  chief 
port  in  the  middle  Caucasus. 

The  first  stop  is  at  Petrovsk,  the  district  town  of 
the  Daghestan.  Before  reaching  this  city,  the  ma- 
jestic range  of  the  Caucasian  Mountains,  among  the 
hiofhest  on  the  irlobe,  rises  into  view,  bearing"  awav 
to  the  northwest,  with  the  fine  snow-capped  peak 
of  the  great  Kazbek  just  peeping  above  the  hori- 
zon. The  boat  stopping  here  several  hours,  gives 
an  opportunity  to  make  a  pleasant  excursion  into 
the  foot-hills  of  the  Daghestan  Mountains,  a  trip 
well  rewarded  by  what  one  sees  among  the  wild, 
rude  tribes  that  people  this  rugged  region. 

Petrovsk,  like  many  other  towns  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Russian  enterprise,  is  growing  rapidly  ; 
and  in  virtue  of  its  excellent  port,  as  well  as  the 
position  it  occupies  as  an  important  intermediate 
point  on  the  soon-to-be  through  Trans-Caspian 
and  Central  Asian  route,  it  is  destined  to  become 
a  city  of  much  importance. 

There  is  now  a  railroad  running  from  Petrovsk 
to  Moscow,  via  X'ladikavkaz  and  Rostoff  on  the 
Don,  and  the  journey  can  be  most  comfortably 
made  without   change  in   three  da)"s  on   a  splendid 


266 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


through  train,  a  distance  of   nearly  two   thousand 
miles. 

A  road  is  ahnost  completed,  running  along  the 
shore  of  the   Caspian   Sea  to   Baku,  a  distance  of 


CATHEDRAL    IX    BAKU 


300  miles.  This  is  designed  to  connect  with  the 
line  of  steamers  running  across  the  Caspian  Sea 
from  the  western  terminus  of  the  Trans-Caspian 
railway  to  Baku,  making  thus  a  direct  line  running 


TRANS-CASPIAN    RAILWAY  267 

from  Central  Asia  to  Moscow,  and  thence  to 
Western  Europe. 

I  have  heretofore  pointed  out  that  results  of 
the  utmost  commercial,  industrial,  and  even  ethi- 
cal, importance  to  Northern  and  Eastern  China,  as 
well  as  to  the  world  generally,  must  speedily 
follow  the  completion  of  the  great  Trans-Siberian 
railway,  with  its  contemplated  tributaries  project- 
ine  southward  into  China. 

In  anticipation  of  the  facts,  which  I  will  here- 
after give  more  in  detail,  of  the  development  of 
Russian  Central  Asia,  I  would  say  that  by  a  like 
policy  of  railway  extension  in  that  country  results 
even  more  far-reaching  in  their  importance  to 
Southern  and  Western,  and  especially  to  Middle 
China,  Northern  India,  Afghanistan,  and  Persia, 
will  follow  the  completion  of  the  main  line  of  the 
Trans-Caspian  railway,  with  its  tributaries  radiat- 
ing into  those  countries.  At  the  present  rapid 
rate  of  advance,  this  will  be  realized  at  no  distant 
da)'. 

The  Trans-Caspian  railway  is  now  practically 
completed  from  Krasnovodsk,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  to  Tashkent,  the  capital 
of  Turkestan,  near  the  China  border,  a  distance  of 
about  1,200  miles.  With  the  exception,  therefore, 
of  the  transit  across  the  Caspian  Sea,  a  continuous 
trip  will   soon  be  possible  from   Paris,  or  any  part 


268  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

of  Western  Europe,  to  the  northern  confines  of 
India  and  right  up  to  the  western  border  of  China, 

The  time  now  required  on  the  Trans-Caspian 
railway  is  three  days.  It  can,  however,  easily  be 
shortened  to  two.  The  Caspian  Sea  may  be 
crossed  in  fifteen  hours.  The  distance  between 
Baku  and  Moscow  can  in  future  be  covered  in  less 
than  three  days  ;  so  that  within  a  year  it  will  be 
possible  to  make  the  journey  from  Western  China 
to  Moscow  within  six  days. 

Following  this  idea  further,  it  will  be  among 
the  possibilities  within  the  next  decade  to  go  from 
Paris  to  Kokand,  or  Kashgar,  or  the  central  north- 
ern border  of  India,  or  even  to  Central  China, 
within  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  As  the  time 
now  required  to  go  from  London  or  Paris  to 
Northern  India  via  Marseilles,  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  Suez,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  is  over  three 
weeks,  and  the  cost  more  than  double,  some  con- 
ception can  be  formed  of  the  great  changes  that 
in  future  are  to  be  wrought  in  the  trade  and  travel 
between  Northern  India,  Central  Asia,  China,  and 
European  countries,  when  the  possibilities  of  this 
great  highway  are  fully  realized. 

By  a  projection  of  this  route  from  Tashkent 
into  Central  China,  that  vast  region  could  be  so 
linked  with  Central  Europe  that  ten  or  twelve 
days    might   sufifice    for  the    journey.       As    by   no 


NEW    RAILWAY    LINE    TO    TURKESTAN     271 

other  possible  route  could  that  vast  region  be 
joined  to  Europe  in  less  than  double  the  time  and 
twice  the  expense,  it  becomes  apparent  how  much 
in  future  Russia  will  control  the  destiny  and  ma- 
terial well-beinor  of  all  Asia. 

The  Russian  government  has  under  contempla- 
tion the  construction  of  yet  another  line,  which, 
when  completed,  will  form  an  additional  and  most 
important  route  between  far  Asiatic  and  Euro- 
pean countries.  At  Samara,  on  the  Volga,  a 
branch  line  separates  from  the  main  stem  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railwav,  runninof  to  Orenbursf  in 
Southeastern  Russia.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
government  to  extend  this  line  southeastward 
some  1,200  miles  (around  the  Aral  Sea),  following 
up  the  Syr-Daria — the  ancient  Jaxartes — to  the 
very  centre  of  Turkestan.  By  this  line,  a  direct 
and  continuous  all-rail  communication  will  be  es- 
tablished between  Northern  Central  Asia,  Central 
China,  and  Europe, 

Having  practically  realized  the  most  stupendous 
railway  enterprise  ever  undertaken,  Russia  now 
seems  ambitious  to  achieve  an  equally  important 
and  brilliant  success  in  another  field.  It  is  noth- 
ing less  than  the  formidable  project  to  connect 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Baltic  b)-  a  gigantic  water- 
way. 

This  is  to  be  accomplished   through  uniting,  by 


272  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

great  canals,  the  various  rivers  flowing  through  the 
wide  and  intervening  country,  a  distance  of  600  or 
800  miles.  They  are  to  be  constructed  of  such  un- 
usual size  and  capacity  that,  in  addition  to  the 
vast  commercial  purposes  they  will  serve,  they  will 
also  be  used  for  the  transit  of  her  naval  armament 
from  one  sea  to  the  other,  securing  thus,  through 
her  own  territory,  free  communication,  independent 
of  any  international  route. 

In  other  words,  she  will  by  this  means  secure 
for  herself  in  European  Russia  those  exclusive 
strategical  advantages  which  the  Trans-Siberian 
and  Trans-Caspian  railways  have  already  given 
her  in  Asiatic  countries.  This  great  project  has 
not  as  yet  assumed  a  tangible  shape,  but  that  it 
will  ultimately  be  carried  out  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  since  this  great  nation  has  a  way  of  realiz- 
ing quietly  and  without  ostentation,  yet  stubbornly 
and  persistently,  the  vast  schemes  she  conceives, 
despite   all   jealous   cavil  and  opposition. 

The  boldness  of  conception,  followed  by  a  per- 
sistent and  steady  realization,  of  schemes  of  im- 
provement and  development  so  vast  and  daring, 
ill  accords,  I  am  sure,  with  the  somewhat  prevalent 
idea  that  Russia  is  a  non-progressive,  inert,  or  at 
least  semi-passive  nation. 

Imbued  to  some  extent  with  this  notion,  it  is 
needless  to  sav  that  in   all  mv  travels   I   have  met 


GROWTH    OF    COMMERCE   AND    TRADE     273 

with  few  greater  surprises  than  that  of  the  steady 
and  in  many  cases  rapid  advance  in  all  directions 
of  Russian  industrial  and  commercial  life. 

It  is  true  that  she  has  not,  as  it  has  too  often 
occurred  in  other  nations  in  their  strife  and  mad 
craze  for  excessive  growth  and  progress,  devel- 
oped new,  needless,  and  in  many  cases  even  injuri- 
ous wants,  nor  has  she  anticipated  for  generations 
real  necessities,  all  of  which  has  had  the  effect  of 
imparting  in  a  large  measure  to  such  nations  an 
air  of  fiction  and  inflation  to  their  national  life. 

Fairness  compels  one  to  say  that  wherever,  in 
due  course  and  by  natural  growth,  real  wants  and 
necessities  arise,  she  meets  them  with  commend- 
able celerity  and  thoroughness.  Her  policy  seems 
to  be  that  of  fully  supph-ing  those  needs  that 
naturally  arise  and  develop,  rather  than  following 
the  example  of  other  nations,  the  volume  of  whose 
trade  and  industries  largely  consists  in  supplying 
unnatural  and  superfluous  wants,  artificially  cre- 
ated. 

Nor  is  it  her  custom  to  herald  abroad  her  pro- 
posed enterprises,  or  magnify  the  results  when 
completed.  Indeed,  on  the  contrary,  in  some 
cases,  such  as  her  present  developments  in  Central 
Asia,  she  discourages,  and  even  represses,  attempts 
to  record  them;  and  it  is  only  the  favored  few 
who   gain  access  to  this  almost   unknown    re^rion 

iS 


274  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

who  acquire  any  knowledge  of  the  really  wondrous 
changes  that  are  now  taking  place   in   it. 

Great  as  will  be  the  effect  upon  the  world  of 
the  opening  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  system 
—a  fact  that  is  gradually  being  recognized — the 
Trans-Caspian  railway  system,  when  completed, 
will  be  productive  of  results  even  far  more  im- 
portant in  their  political  and  commercial  conse- 
quences. 

There  is  a  branch  of  the  Trans-Caspian  railway 
now  completed,  some  250  miles  in  length  and 
running  southward  from  Merv  to  Kushk,  on  the 
very  borders  of  Afghanistan.  It  is  being  quietly 
extended  to  Herat,  and  it  will,  when  completed, 
give  Russia  practical  control  of  Northwestern 
Afghanistan,  as  Herat  is  the  key  to  that  country. 
This  line  is  also  projected  to  run  further  south- 
ward, through  the  heart  of  Persia  down  to  the 
Persian  Gulf, — very  extensive  concessions,  as  I 
learn,  having  recently  been  given  to  Russia  by 
the  Persian  Government  to  build  railways  in  that 
country.  The  railway  that  has  just  been  con- 
structed from  Tiflis,  in  the  Caucasus,  to  Alexan- 
dropol  and  Erivan  in  Armenia,  is  to  be  pushed 
down  the  Araxes  River  to  Tibriz,  Teheran,  and 
Ispahan,  thus  crossing  in  the  centre  of  Persia, 
almost  at  rieht  ano-les,  the  branch  line  of  the 
Trans-Caspian    railway  running    southward    from 


RUSSIAN    CONTROL    OF    AFGHANISTAN    275 

Merv  via  Herat.  These  lines,  when  in  operation, 
will  thus  obviously  give  Russia  a  controlling  in- 
fluence in  Persia  and  Northwestern  Afghanistan. 
A  branch,  also,  of  the  main  stem  of  the  Trans- 
Caspian  line  is  being  built  from  Samarkand 
through  Ferghan,  in  the  direction  of  Kokand  and 
Kashgar,  in  the  Pamirs,  almost  in  sight  of  the 
northern  border  of  India,  This  line  in  time  will, 
no  doubt,  be  extended  into  Chinese  Turkestan, 
and  perhaps  into  the  very  centre  of  China  itself, 
bringing  thus  this  great  and  populous  country 
into  communication  with  Europe,  even  more  di- 
rectly than  by  the  way  of  the  Trans-Siberian  rail- 
way line.  Still  another  most  important  route  is 
projected  to  run  southward  from  Samarkand 
some  250  miles,  through  Southern  Bokhara,  to 
Karshi,  on  the  northwestern  confines  of  Afghan- 
istan, and  said  to  occupy  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant strategical  positions  in  all  Asia.  Karshi 
lies  but  a  short  distance  northeast  of  Balk,  which 
place  was  the  base  of  Alexander's  operations 
against  India,  and  from  which  he  made  his  de- 
scent upon  that  country.  An  extension  of  this 
line  further  on,  toward  Candahar — a  quite  prob- 
able thing,  as  the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  is  said 
to  be  most  favorably  inclined  to  Russia — would 
give  Russia  practical  control  of  the  Cabul  basin 
and  of   the  northern  half  of  Afo^hanistan.      As  the 


276  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

Trans-Caspian  railway  and  its  tributaries,  running 
to  the  very  borders  of  India  and  through  hundreds 
of  miles  distance,  could  be  used  if  desired  by 
Russia  wholly  for  military  operations  against  that 
country,  it  is  apparent  that  she  could  inaugurate 
a  movement  in  case  of  necessity  against  England's 
cherished  possessions,  of  the  most  formidable  and 
dangerous  character.  By  her  ample  railway  facili- 
ties, she  could  in  a  brief  time  throw  along  hundreds 
of  miles  of  assailable  frontier,  myriads  of  soldiers, 
the  best  in  the  world,  where  they  could  readily  be 
maintained  as  a  perpetual  menace  to  India.  Nor 
does  it  seem  possible  for  any  combination  of 
forces  to  prevent  or  arrest  such  a  movement  on 
the  part  of  Russia,  as  no  array  of  naval  power 
could  avail  against  the  use  of  this  system  of  rail- 
ways as  a  military  instrument,  lying  as  it  does 
in  the  very  heart  of  the  great  Slavic  empire, 
and  far  remote  from  the  sea.  As  Russia  is 
pushing  her  projected  improvements  in  these 
regions  steadily  and  with  vigor,  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  she  already  feels  that  she  controls  the 
destinies  of  Southwestern  Asia,  and,  even  more, 
that  at  her  leisure  she  can  dictate  to  England 
what  her  future  relations  to  that  country  shall  be. 
If,  unfortunately,  hostilities  should  again  arise 
between  these  two  great  powers,  be  the  point  of 
contact  Port  Arthur  or  Sebastopol,  it   may  not  be 


STRATEGICAL    ADVANTAGE    OF    RUSSIA    277 

the  privilege  of  England,  in  the  event  of  a  serious 
conflict,  to  choose  her  vantage  ground,  as  this  ad- 
vantage would  lie  rather  with  Russia.  The  indif- 
ference with  which  the  latter  might  well  look  upon 
an  approach  by  sea,  would  leave  her  free  to  throw 
an  overwhelming  force  upon  an  interior  point,  and 
thus  shift  the  scene  of  real  conflict  to  a  region 
where  the  great  naval  forces  of  her  adversary 
would  be  relativeh'  of  little  use.  By  reason  of  the 
self-contained  and  self-sustaining  power  of  Russia; 
her  vast,  impenetrable,  and  wholly  contiguous  ter- 
ritory, now  practically  conterminous  with  hundreds 
of  miles  of  India's  northern  border;  a  widely  rami- 
fying railway  system  beyond  the  reach  of  an 
enemy  to  interrupt,  and  providing  ample  means 
direct  for  transportation  of  troops  and  supplies, 
it  seems  probable  that  such  an  assault  could  be 
made  by  her  upon  India  (that  might  be  prolonged 
indefinitely)  as  would  require  the  entire  resources 
of  England  to  meet  and  at  the  same  time  to 
preserve  the  peace  of  her  none  too  loyal  subjects 
there,  whose  discontent  would  find  a  stimulus  in 
the  near  presence  of  a  powerful  ally.  ^lay  we  not 
find  in  a  situation  so  exceptional,  a  position  so 
obviously  commanding  and  assured,  the  true  sig- 
nificance of  Russia's  recent  peace  proposals? 

May  it  not  in  reality  suggest   a  generous  desire 
on  her  part    to    aid  in    securing    those    measures 


278  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

whereby  the  world's  great  powers  shall  volun- 
tarily delimit  their  ambitions,  and  thus  assure  the 
future  inteo;ritv  of  trade  and  commerce  ?  For,  with 
the  most  powerful  army  on  the  globe,  and  holding 
a  position  of  such  rare  strategical  advantage,  of 
which  she  is  doubtless  fully  conscious,  is  it  likely 
that  she  entertains  any  fear  of  the  issue  of  a  con- 
test with  any  possible  combination,  under  condi- 
tions now  so  distinctly  in  her  favor  ? 

It  is  an  interesting  question,  well  worthy  of  con- 
sideration, how  far  this  manifest  tactical  advantage 
enjoyed  by  Russia  will  in  future  operate  to  main- 
tain peace,  or  will  even  conduce  to  an  ultimate 
friendly  relation  of  the  two  great  powers,  between 
whom  it  is  difficult  to  discern  other  than  a  common 
interest,  or  at  least  any  substantial  cause  to  per- 
petuate hostile  relations. 

If  unfortunately  a  collision  should  arise  on  the 
lines  here  pointed  out,  with  its  destructive  effects, 
its  widespread  disaster  to  the  trade,  commerce,  and 
industry  of  all  European  and  Asiatic  peoples,  our 
own  country  will  have  cause  for  congratulation 
that,  by  the  fortunate  position  it  occupies,  she 
will  escape  the  deplorable  consequences  that  are 
certain  to  erow  out  of  the  entanorlingr  relations  and 
alliances  that  harass  and  plague  less  fortunate 
nations. 


^^^.^^.■|!i?>    Ilk-,,: 


XIV 

The  great  city  of  Baku — Its  rapid  growtii — Cause  of  same — Yet 
growing  rapidly — Tiie  petroleum  deposits  in  the  Caucasus — 
Number  of  wells  in  operation — Limited  exploration  of  Caucasian 
oil  fields — New  field  north  of  the  Caucasian  range  of  mountains 
— Output  of  the  oil  wells  in  1897 — Stories  current  in  Baku — A 
lucky  Tartar — Wonderful  wells — Refineries  in  "Black  Town," 
near  Baku — Crude  oil  extensively  used  as  fuel  in  Southern  Russia 
■ — Desire  to  visit  Central  Asia — Importance  of  that  country  politi- 
cally— The  key  to  India,  Western  China,  and  perhaps  Constan- 
tinople— Intricacies  of  European  politics — India  the  real  storm 
centre — India  indispensable  to  England's  power  and  greatness — 
Her  anxiety  and  efforts  to  preserve  same — Her  fear  of  Russia's 
designs  upon  India — Has  relied  upon  her  great  navy — Her 
naval  strength  would  avail  but  little  to  check  Russia's  advance 
through  Central  Asia — Russia's  railway  building  in  Asia 
regarded  as  a  menace  to  India — The  "gospel  of  the  machine  " — 
Russian  railway  advance  in  Asia — Desire  for  alliances — The 
open  door — Cautious  measures  of  Russia  in  her  Central  Asian 
possessions. 

Among  the  many  almost  miraculous  creations 
of  modern  trade  and  industry,  Baku  deserves  to 
take  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  list  of  phenomenal 
cities.  In  its  ante-petroleum  days  it  was  merely 
one  of  many  small  and  (;ven  insignificant  towns 
that  dotted  the  Caucasian  sliore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  at  which  an  occasional  sail  vessel  called  for  the 


282 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


purposes  of  local  trade.  It  is  to-day  a  great  city  of 
150,000  inhabitants,  with  large  and  beautiful  busi- 
ness blocks,  many  well-paved  streets,  tramways, 
electric  lights,  telephone  system,  etc.;  and  its  capa- 


OIL    FIELD    SOU7H    OF    BAKU,    NEAR    THE    SHORE    OF    THE    CASPIAN    SEA, 
OPERATED    BY    ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    CAPITALISTS 


cious  harbor  is  literally  jammed  with  sail  and  steam 
vessels,   its  commerce  extending  to  the    remotest 
limits  of  the  empire,  and  even  far  into  Europe. 
It    is   the    familiar  story  of  a   newly  discovered 


THE    RAPID    GROWTH    OF    BAKU         283 

resource,  so  great  as  to  cause  the  convergence  of 
the  world's  energy  and  capital  upon  it.  The  pri- 
mary cause  of  its  rapid  growth  is,  of  course,  the 
great  petroleum  interests  of  which  it  is  the  centre. 
But  a  great  accession  of  trade  and  energy  grows 
out  of  the  fact  that  Baku  is  in  reality  the  western 
terminus  of  the  Trans-Caspian  railway,  the  com- 
mercial forces  and  influences  of  which  impinge 
full  upon  this  fortunate  city. 

Rapid  as  has  been  the  growth  of  this  queer  city 
in  recent  years,  there  seems  to  be  no  abatement  in 
the  rate  of  its  expansion,  for  everywhere  great 
stone  and  brick  edifices  are  being  now  erected, 
new  streets  laid  out,  and  the  old  Persian,  Tartar, 
and  Armenian  quarters,  if  not  literally  razed  to 
build  a  new  city  upon,  at  least  newly  traversed  by 
broad  and  elegant  avenues. 

Nor  does  there  seem  to  be  a  probability  of  an 
early  limit  to  its  rapid  growth,  since  the  petroleum 
interests  of  this  region  are  as  yet  hardly  more 
than  explored.  It  seems  to  be  the  opinion  of 
many  scientists  that  the  petroleum  deposits  of  the 
Eastern  Caucasus  are  the  most  important  on  the 
globe. 

As  yet  only  two  fields  have  been  developed, 
one  lying  about  two  miles  south  of  the  city,  near 
the  sea  level,  and  containing  about  500  wells; 
the  other  some  six  miles  north  of  the  citv,  and  at 


284 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


an  elevation  of  several  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  containinor  about  1,200  wells.  In 
all,  therefore,  there  are  at  present  some  1,800  wells 
tributary  to  Baku, 


OIL    FIELD    NORTHWEST    OF    BAKU,   SEVERAL    HUNDRED    FEET    ABOVE   THE 
SEA    LEVEL,     OPERATED    BY    SWEDISH    AND    FRENCH    CAPITALISTS 


The  first  mentioned  field  is  being  largely 
worked  by  English  capital,  and  the  latter  by  Noe- 
bel,  the  Swedish  discoverer  of  dynamite,  and  the 


EXTENT    OF    PETROLEUM    FIELDS       285 

Rothschilds.  New  wells  are  beintr  sunk  in  orreat 
numbers,  and  the  road  from  Baku  to  the  northern 
field,  a  distance  of  six  miles,  is  almost  literal!)'  im- 
passable, so  crowded  is  it  with  teams  hauling  great 
boilers  and  other  machinery  destined  for  the  use 
of  new  wells  or  those  in  course  of  preparation. 

But  comparatively  little  testing  has  been  done 
to  determine  the  true  extent  of  the  oil  fields  of 
the  Caucasus,  but  enough  to  establish  the  fact  that 
they  cover  the  greater  portion  of  the  Eastern 
Caucasus  and  extend  even  into  Northern  Persia. 
Quite  a  promising  field  has  been  opened  the  past 
three  or  four  years  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Caucasian  Mountains,  midway  between  Petrovsk 
and  Vladikavkaz, 

From  Baron  von  der  Hoven,  the  head  of  the 
statistical  department  for  Eastern  Caucasus,  I 
learned  that  this  industry  was  rapidly  on  the  in- 
crease. The  output  of  crude  oil  last  year  was 
nearly  2,000,000,000  gallons.  In  1891  there  were 
fifteen  refineries,  producing  80,000,000  gallons 
of  refined  oil. 

The  same  marvellous  stories  are  current  here  of 
the  sudden  transition  from  extreme  poverty  to 
great  wealth,  that  embellished  the  history  of 
Western  Pennsylvania  in  the  "Coal  Oil  Johnny" 
days.  You  are  told  of  the  wretchedly  poor  Ar- 
menian or  lucky  Tartar,   the  possessor  of  a  tract 


286  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

of  land  so  miserably  sterile  that  a  whole  acre 
would  not  yield  subsistence  for  a  handful  of  grass- 
hoppers, who  found  himself  suddenly  possessed  of 
wealth  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice. 

A  Tartar  was  pointed  out  to  me  who  a  few  years 
ago  was  pounding  stone  on  the  street  for  a  living, 
and  is  now  said  to  be  worth  25,000,000  rubles. 

The  interested  traveller  is  also  expected  to  be 
astonished  by  the  usual  stories  about  the  wonder- 
ful performance  of  some  spouter  or  gusher  that 
has  broken  the  record.  I  was  shown  a  well  be- 
longing to  the  Rothschilds,  which  while  now  only 
an  ordinary  producer,  is  said  to  have  once  spouted 
for  months  at  a  time  at  the  astounding  rate  of 
nearly  2,000,000  gallons  a  day. 

Along  the  bay,  in  the  northeast  part  of  the  city, 
are  located  the  larore  refineries  of  Noebel  and  the 
Rothschilds,  which  alone  have  created  quite  a  city, 
called  "  Black  Town." 

This  immense  deposit  of  oil  is  destined  to  be  a 
source  of  great  wealth  to  Russia.  Besides  sup- 
plying a  large  quantity  for  export,  it  is  used  in  a 
crude  form  for  fuel  throuorhout  much  of  the  em- 
pire.  The  steamboats  on  the  Don,  Volga,  and 
other  rivers,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  to  some 
extent  also  in  the  Black  Sea,  as  also  almost  all  the 
railways  in  Southeastern  Russia,  use  the  crude  oil 
exclusivelv  for  fuel. 


DESIRE   TO    VISIT    CENTRAL    ASIA        289 

I  confess  that  for  years  I  have  cherished  an 
ardent  desire  to  visit  Central  Asia  and  the  ancient 
cities  of  Merv,  Bokhara,  and  Samarkand,  about 
which  to  my  youthful  imagination  such  a  halo  of 
romance  was  thrown  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
which,  in  more  modern  times,  was  the  seat  of  that 
mighty  Tartar  power  under  Zinghiz  Khan  and 
Tamerlane  ;  a  region,  too,  that  once  was  so  famous 
in  the  annals  of  literature  and  of  art. 

The  vague  expectation  of  being  able  to  obtain 
a  permit  to  see  this  interesting  country  was  one 
of  the  incentives  to  my  visiting  the  Caspian  region 
at  this  time.  Perhaps  no  country,  excepting  some 
portions  of  China,  has  been  so  long  excluded  from 
the  world,  and  into  which  admission  was  so  diffi- 
cult, as  Central  Asia.  Indeed,  the  Bokharian  por- 
tion of  it  records  but  one  authenticated  visit  by  a 
European  previous  to  this  century,  and  it  is  only 
in  comparatively  recent  years  that  other  than  a  few 
Russian  officials  have  gone  into  this  sealed  land. 

Great  as  was  the  part  that  Central  Asia  played 
in  the  past  in  the  world's  affairs,  she  seems  destined 
to  play  indirectly  the  same  role  in  scarcely  a  less 
degree,  since  it  is  fast  becoming  the  key  to  West- 
ern China  and  Southern  Asia,  Afghanistan  and 
Persia,  and  may  even  yet  point  the  way  to  Con- 
stantinople. 

To  those  at  all  familiar  with  the  intricacies  of 
19 


290  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

European  politics,  and  who  study  its  delicate  ad- 
justments, it  is  apparent  that  no  matter  what  dis- 
turbance of  the  political  atmosphere  there  may  be 
in  the  Balkans,  on  the  Nile,  in  Turkey,  or  Pales- 
tine, or  even  the  Baltic,  for  the  most  part  the  real 
storm  centre  can  be  sought  for  and  found  in  India. 

England,  it  seems,  has  come  to  regard  the  reten- 
tion of  that  country  as  synonymous  with  her  na- 
tional prosperity  and  supremacy,  and,  in  truth,  were 
she  to  lose  it,  she  would  at  once  descend  to  a  sec- 
ond-rate power.  In  view  of  this,  for  a  century  she 
has  artfully  contrived  to  create  and  maintain  a 
system  of  national  checkmates  in  Europe,  to  safe- 
guard her  Indian  possessions  and  subserve  her 
cherished  purposes  elsewhere.  Whatever  might 
be  the  aims,  desires,  and  abilities  of  other  nations, 
she  has  chosen  to  regard  Russia  as  her  natural 
enemy,  and  the  one  nation  filled  with  a  covetous 
desire  for  this  her  choicest  possession. 

The  extreme  sensitiveness  displayed  by  this 
great  nation — which  upon  all  other  questions  pre- 
serves such  an  admirable  equipoise — whenever 
Russia  makes  the  least  movement  eastward,  pre- 
sents a  strange  spectacle.  No  matter  what  that 
nation  may  do,  she  seems  to  regard  every  incident 
and  event,  however  remote,  to  which  Russia  is  re- 
lated, as  a  direct  menace  to  India. 

Every  now   and   again,   some  apocryphal  story 


ENGLAND'S    ANXIETY    FOR    INDIA       291 

flashes  athwart  the  British  press  about  Russia's 
sinister  designs  in  Central  Asia.  If  it  be  reported 
that  she  is  building  a  railway  toward  Herat  or  the 
Pamirs,  a  common  road  in  the  direction  of  Persia, 
or  if  some  Russian  officer  should  chance  to  turn 
his  binoculars  toward  the  Afghan  mountains, 
fear  seems  to  seize  this  stalwart  nation,  and  a  note 
of  alarm  is  sounded  that  India  is  threatened. 

Havino;  longr  chosen  to  re(jard  Russia  as  hold- 
ing  traditional  designs  on  India,  and  having 
adopted  the  rather  singular  view  that  the  Medi- 
terranean was  to  be  the  road  to  that  coveted  land, 
it  was  this  that  caused  her  to  create  her  immense 
naval  armament  to  patrol  that  sea,  as  a  means  of 
insuring  the  safety  of  her  Indian  possessions. 
Now  that  Russia,  by  a  system  of  railways  in  her 
own  possessions,  is  approaching  the  very  border 
of  India,  by  which,  if  she  chooses  to  do  so,  she 
can  throw  the  weight  of  her  empire  against  upper 
India,  we  can  find  in  this  new  situation  a  reason- 
able excuse  for  England's  present  anxiety,  seeing 
that  her  mighty  ironclads,  created  at  so  much 
pains  and  at  so  great  an  expense,  are  likely  to 
prove  about  as  effective  in  preventing  the  ap- 
proach of  Russia  in  this  more  vulnerable  direc- 
tion, as  so  much  old  junk. 

Into  what  strange  and  erratic  courses  such  fear 
can  lead  a  nation,  in  so  many  ways  the  greatest  and 


292  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

most  admirable,  is  signally  illustrated  by  a  recent 
occurrence.  When  the  Czar  made  his  late  pro- 
posal of  disarmament — a  scheme  so  beneficent  that 
it  might  well  call  down  upon  the  head  of  the 
young  ruler  the  praises  and  blessings  of  all  lovers 
of  peace  and  humanity — some  of  the  leading 
papers  of  England,  that  direct  and  mould  public 
sentiment,  made  the  counter  proposal,  that  before 
giving  it  consideration,  Russia  should  be  asked, 
as  a  pledge  of  her  sincerity,  to  cease  building 
railways  in  China  and  Central  Asia. 

This  proposition,  to  say  the  least,  is  an  astound- 
ing one,  coming  as  it  did  from  a  nation  that  justi- 
fies its  occupation  of  India,  and  the  conquest  of 
unoffending  African  races,  mainly  on  the  ground 
that  these  people  will  thereby  receive  the  bene- 
fits of  railways  and  other  blessings  of  a  new 
civilization. 

Strangely  enough,  this  "  gospel  of  the  machine  " 
seems  to  be  spreading  apace,  and  may  yet  supplant 
that  of  the  "meek  and  lowly."  However  sound  it 
may  seem  to  be  in  the  abstract,  or  whatever  may 
be  the  present  results  of  its  practical  application,  I 
doubt  if  the  world  is  yet  prepared  to  accept  the 
full  consequences  of  a  doctrine  so  grossly  material, 
as  that  the  immunity  of  any  nation  from  wanton 
and  unprovoked  assault  by  other  nations  is  to  be 
measured  by  its  readiness  to  accept  and  its  capac- 


DESIRE    FOR   ALLIANCES  293 

ity  to  consume  the  modern  products  of  the  mine 
and  the  loom. 

The  many  evidences  during  the  past  year  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  Central  Asia  was  being  Rus- 
sianized, and  the  equally  rapid  advance  of  her 
great  railway  towards  an  open  seaport  on  the 
Pacific  at  Port  Arthur,  with  its  contemplated  col- 
lateral branches  into  China,  have  in  the  past  few 
months  quickened  England  into  increased  efforts 
to  check  or  obstruct  the  movements  of  her  great 
adversary,  which,  however  local  or  domestic  they 
may  in  reality  be,  she  regards  as  having  an  object 
personal  to  herself. 

It  is  not  the  least  singular  fact  in  this  connec- 
tion that  she  seems  to  lack  confidence  in  her  own 
unaided  abilities,  as  her  search  for  alliances  would 
appear  to  indicate.  In  her  desire  to  compass  this, 
with  a  rare  inconsistency,  the  tempting  bait  of 
"  open  door  trade "  is  proffered  to  nations  who 
long  have  been,  and  are  likely  long  to  remain, 
irrevocably  committed  to  a  "closed  door  policy" 
far  more  riorid  in  character  than  that  of  Russia. 
Naturally  enough,  as  a  foil  to  these  obstructive 
efforts,  Russia  retorts  with  protective  measures  of 
extreme  caution  and  vigilance,  even  to  placing  a 
partial  though  temporary  interdict  upon  her  Cen- 
tral Asian  possessions. 


XV 


Admission  into  Trans-Caspian  country — Military  railway — Special 
permit  necessary  in  Trans-Caspian  region — Across  Northern 
Persia — On  the  Araxes  River — First  view  of  Mt.  Ararat — Cross- 
ing the  Araxes— Mt.  Ararat — Grandeur  of  same — Ascent  of 
Ararat — Armenian  cemetery — Across  the  Araxes  Valley — Eri- 
van,  the  capital  of  Armenia — Mosques,  palaces,  etc. — Change 
under  Russian  rule — New  railway  line  south  of  Erivan — Mar- 
kets in  Erivan — The  great-tailed  sheep — On  the  road  to  the 
Caucasus — Last  view  of  Mtt  Ararat — Curious  religious  sects — 
Picturesque  Lake  of  Goktcha — Height  above  the  sea — The  an- 
cient monastery  ofSevanga — Over  the  Delijan  Pass — Descent  of 
northern  slope  of  Armenian  mountains — Arrival  at  Akstafa  on 
the  Kura  River. 

Many  curious  stories  are  afloat  at  Baku  respect- 
ing the  various  attempts  of  would-be  English  tour- 
ists to  gain  admission  into  the  Trans-Caspian 
country.  Relying  upon  the  sufficiency  of  their 
passports,  they  cross  the  Caspian  Sea  only  to  find 
themselves  summarily  and  promptly  sent  back 
again.  Having  this  in  mind,  I  called  upon  the 
governor  of  Baku  for  permission  to  go  over  the 
Trans-Caspian  railway  to  Samarkand  and  Tash- 
kent. 

I  might  add  here  that  this  railway  is  purely  a 
military  one,  undertaken  and  built  by  Russia  for 


TRANS-CASPIAN   RAILWAY 


295 


the  purpose  of  securing  her  interests  in  Central 
Asia,  and  is  operated  by  the  Ministry  of  \\  ar.  I 
was,  however,  informed  at  Merv  that  as  soon  as 
the  branches  that  are  being  built  into  Turkestan, 
Feracrhan,    and    to    the   Afghan    border    are    com- 


INTKRIOR    OF    THE    ANXIENT    PALACE    OF   THE   VICEROYS    OF    PERSIA    IN 

ERIVAN 

pleted,  the  road  will  be  handed  over  to  the  civil 
authorities  to  be  operated  by  the  Ministry  of  Rail- 
ways, becoming  thus,  like  all  other  railroads  in  this 
country,  freely  open  to  all,  and  to  general  trade 
purposes.  This  is  expected  to  be  done  within  the 
next  vear. 


296  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

The  official  to  whom  I  appHed,  while  admitting 
the  present  extreme  precautions  of  his  govern- 
ment, replied  that  whatever  limitations  might  be 
placed  upon  the  movements  of  others,  the  Ameri- 
can was  always  privileged  and  welcome  to  freely 
travel  in  any  portion  of  the  empire,  merely  upon 
the  passport  of  his  government.  He,  however, 
significantly  added  that  to  insure  perfect  freedom 
and  unrestrained  facilities  for  travel,  it  would  be 
well  to  secure  a  special  permit  from  the  Minister 
of  the  Interior,  he  himself  having  no  authority  to 
issue  one.  This  could  be  readily  done,  he  assured 
me,  by  letter  or  personal  application  to  the  Minis- 
ter at  St,  Petersburg.  Finding  that  this  would 
consume  nearly  a  month,  and  not  caring  to  under- 
take a  trip  so  full  of  hardships,  with  no  certainty 
of  having  the  necessary  freedom  to  see  the  desired 
objects  of  interest  there,  I  reluctantly  abandoned 
the  journey. 

Takinor  the  boat  for  Lenkoran,  100  miles  south 
of  Baku,  I  crossed  through  Northern  Persia  to  the 
Araxes  River,  which  forms  the  boundary  between 
that  country  and  Russia.  Following  up  this  river, 
I  reached  the  small  town  of  Nakhchivan,  which 
means  in  Persian  "the  first  descent,"  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  first  resting  place  of  Noah, 
after  leaving  the  ark.  While  there  I  was  shown 
a    veritable    piece    of    the    true    ark,   which    I   ad- 


CROSSING   THE    ARAXES    RIVER 


297 


mired    with     much     interest    and    becoming    rev- 
erence. 

Following    the  river  mentioned,  we  passed  the 


r*r:5a 


CARAVAN    CROSSING    THE   ARAXES    RIVER,    ON   THE    BORDERS    OF    RUSSIA 
AND    PERSIA,    EN    ROUTE    FOR    ERIVAN,    ARMENIA 


little  Ararat,  a  beautifulh-  pointed  mountain  of 
12,000  feet  in  height.  The  road  follows  some- 
what closely  the  course  of  the  Araxes,  which, 
throughout    much    of    its    length,    constitutes    the 


298 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


boundary  between  Persia  and  Russia.  This  road 
is  the  great  higliway  that  joins  Northern  Persia  to 
the  Caucasus  and  Europe.  At  Kamerki  there  is  a 
branch    road  that  leads  westward   to    Aralykli,   at 


ON    THE    BANKS    OF    THE    ARAXES    RIVER,    FORMING    THE    BOUNDARY 
BETWEEN    RUSSIA   AND    PERSIA 


the  base  of  the  Great  Ararat.  This  is  a  miHtary 
post,  where  a  great  number  of  Cossacks  are  per- 
manently quartered,  and  it  is  from  this  point  that 
the  ascent  of  Mt.  Ararat  is  made.      x\bout  midway 


GREAT    AND    LITTLE    ARARAT 


301 


between  Kamerlu  and  Aralykh,  a  distance  of  about 
ten  miles,  the  Araxes  River  is  crossed  on  a  primi- 
tive ferry. 

After   that,  we   came  upon    the   real  Ararat  of 


1\    THE    VAI.I.F.V    OF    THE    ARAXES    RIVER.       LITTLE    AMI    CKEAT    ARARAT 
MOUNTAINS    IN    THE   DISTANCE 

Scripture  and  history,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  stately  of  mountains,  and  about  17,000  feet 
in  height.  I  have  seen  most  of  the  celebrated 
mountains   of    the    irlobe,   but   of    them    all    none 


302 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


presents  a  more  imposing  appearance  than  Ararat, 
viewed  from  the  A  raxes  that  washes  its  very 
base.     Most  lofty  mountains  are  so  situated  that 


DISTANT    VIEW    OF    MT.    ARARAT 


(fo.H^;f 


the  summit  can  be  seen  only  at  a  great  distance, 
or  else  after  much  of  its  height  has  been  reached. 
The  summit  of  Ararat,  however,  can  be  seen  from 
its  very  base,  at  a  point  only  a  few  hundred  feet 


MOUNT    ARARAT  305 

above  the  level  of  the  sea  and  at  a  distance  as  the 
bird  flies  of  less  than  twenty  miles. 

The  mountain,  therefore,  rises  directly  before 
you  to  a  height  of  over  three  miles  in  a  wonder- 
fully impressive  manner.  By  reason  of  its  near- 
ness, its  perfect  symmetry,  the  everlasting  mantle 
of  snow  that  envelops  the  summit,  all  viewed 
through  the  transparent  atmosphere  of  this  re- 
gion, it  becomes,  perhaps,  the  most  satisfactory 
mountain  view  on  the  globe. 

The  northern  face  has  a  very  striking  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Mount  Etna,  having  a  deep  de- 
pression much  like  the  val  del  hovo  of  that  moun- 
tain. I  did  not  go  to  the  summit,  as  it  is  a  most 
fatiguing  trip,  requiring  several  days.  As  this 
region  is  infested  with  numerous  and  dancrerous 
bands  of  briorands  and  robbers,  those  who  visit  the 
summit  are  provided  by  the  government,  for  their 
protection,  with  ten  or  a  dozen  Cossacks  from  the 
barracks  located  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  where 
there  are  always  quartered  several  regiments  of 
these  celebrated  soldiers. 

Soon  after  leaving  the  small  town  of  Agham- 
zaly,  I  noticed  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
roadside  quite  a  number  of  natives,  dressed  in 
varied  costumes  bright  in  their  richness  of  colors. 
They  were  in  an  open  space,  literally  covered  with 
great  round  boulders  scattered  irregularly  about. 


3o6  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

On  coming"  closer  I  discovered  that  it  was  a 
cemetery,  and  some  important  memorial  service 
was  being-  held.  The  stones,  simply  of  a  natural 
form  and  obtained  from  the  hills  nearby,  served 
to  mark  the  locality  of  the  many  graves.  There 
was  no  enclosing  wall  or  other  protection  for  the 
cemetery.  I  was  much  impressed  by  the  striking 
contrast  of  the  rich,  even  gaudy,  coloring  of  their 
costumes  with  the  solemn  occasion  and  sombre 
surroundings. 

Cutting  across  the  valley  of  the  Araxes,  we 
reached  the  ancient  city  of  Erivan,  the  capital  of 
Armenia.  It  is  located  on  the  Zanga  River,  an 
affluent  of  the  Araxes,  which  it  enters  some 
twenty  miles  below,  in  the  direction  of  Mt.  Ararat. 
Erivan  is  full  of  half-ruined  and  what  must  have 
been  exquisitely  beautiful  mosques,  decayed  pal- 
aces, ancient  fortresses,  and  other  reminders  of 
its  former  Mohammedan  masters.  Many  changes 
have  occurred  under  Russian  rule,  greatly  modern- 
izing the  city.  Wide  streets,  spacious  parks, 
handsome  public  buildings.  Christian  churches, 
etc.,  attest  the  presence  of  a  new  master. 

On  my  way  northward,  I  noticed  the  govern- 
ment was  busily  engaged  in  surveying  a  railway 
line  down  the  valley  of  the  Araxes.  Persia  is,  no 
doubt,  the  southern  objective  point  of  this  road, 
and  it  seemed  to  be  headino-  for  Tibriz.      As   Rus- 


RUSSIAN    RAILWAYS    IN    PERSIA 


309 


sia  has  recently  received  from  Persia  extensive 
concessions,  this,  no  doubt,  is  the  initial  line  from 
the  north  into  that  country.  This  road  is  to  join, 
at  Alexandropol,   the   one   now  almost   completed 


COSSACK    CAVALRYMEN    ON    THE    ROAD    TO    MT.    ARARAT 


from  Titiis  to  that  cit)-.  As  the  Trans-Caucasian 
railway  runs  from  Tiflis  to  Batoum  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  this  new  line  will  ultimately 
form   a  continuous    route    from   Central   Persia  to 


310 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Europe  through  Armenia,  the  Caucasus,  and  the 
Dardanelles.  A  future  network  of  railways  by 
Russia  into  Persia  and  Afg-hanistan  will  no  doubt 
be  a  natural  sequence  to  her  network  of  railways 
in  Central  Asia. 

While  in  Erivan  I  visited  the  markets  there,  of 


RKTUKM.NU    IKOM    MX.    ARARAT 


which  there  are  several  most  important  and  highly 
interesting-.  The  soil  along  the  Zanga  and  Araxes 
rivers,  being  simply  the  \vashings  or  detritus  of 
the  enclosinof  volcanic  mountains,  is  therefore  of 
an  extremely  fertile  nature.  It  much  resembles 
the  volcanic  soils  around  Naples  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  being  somewhat  similarly  formed. 


VEGETABLE    PRODUCTS    OF    ARMENIA       311 

The  many  streams  descending-  from  the  moun- 
tains give  an  abundant  supply  of  water  for  irriga- 
tion, which  is  carried  by  a  great  network  of  canals 
and  ditches   throuq-hout  these   rich    and   beautiful 


PERSIAN    CART    OR    AREA 


valleys.  Vegetables,  therefore,  not  only  grow 
there  in  the  greatest  profusion,  but  also  in  great 
variety.  Almost  every  kind  that  is  natural  to  a 
temperate  climate  can  be  found  in  the  markets,  and 
also  many  that  are  distinctl}-  of  a  tropical  nature. 


312 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


I  found  there  what  was  the  finest  specimen  I 
have  ever  seen  of  that  sino-ular  animal  known  as 
the  "fat-tailed  sheep,"  so  often  met  with  in  Afri- 
can and  Asiatic  countries.     Whether  by  gradual 


MARKET    SCENE   IN    ERIVAX.        GREAT    FAT-TAILED    SHEEP 

chanofes  throuo-h  domestication  or  bv  natural  pro- 
cesses  this  extraordinary  appendage  has  been  de- 
veloped, it  is  difficult  to  determine.  It  consists 
of  two  great  lobes  of  fatty  matter  springing  from 
the  body  of   the  animal   on  each   side  of  the  tail, 


VIEW    OF    ARARAT    FROM    ERIVAN       315 

which  is  so  completely  embedded  in  it  that  it  no 
longer  possesses  either  the  appearance  or  function 
of  that  useful  member.  So  enormously  is  this  pe- 
culiar q-rowth  developed  in  some  cases  that  it  al- 


VIEW   OF    MT.    ARARAT,    I.OOKI\(,    SOUTHWARD    FROM    ERIVAX,    THE 
CAPITAL    OF    ARMENIA 


most  trails  upon  the  ground.  It  is  generally  from 
25  to  30  pounds  in  weight,  but  40  to  50,  and  even 
60,  pounds  are  not  uncommon.  It  is  of  an  excccd- 
incjly  delicate   nature,  more  resembling  marrow-fat 


3i6 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


than  any  other  substance,  and  it  is  much  prized 
for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  largely  used  for  soups 
throughout  the  country  where  the  animal  is  bred, 
producing  a  most   savory  and  agreeable  article  of 


NEW   MOSQUE    OF    HUESSIN    ALT    KHAN    IN    ERIVAN 

diet.  This  variety  of  sheep,  besides  being  large 
and  yielding  an  excellent  kind  of  mutton,  pro- 
duces a  heavy  fleece  of  wool  of  fine  quality. 

Possessing  so   many  desirable   qualities,  I   have 
often  wondered  whv  some  effort  has  not  been  made 


GREAT-TAILED    SHEEP 


319 


to  introduce  it  into  our  own  country.  It  would, 
no  doubt,  be  possible  to  do  so,  as  it  seems  to  adapt 
itself  to  almost  all  climatic  and  physical  conditions, 
for  I  have  met  with  it  from  the  hot,  arid  plains  of 


ANCIENT    MOHAMMEDAN    MOSQUE    IX    ERIVAN 


Nubia,  Abyssinia,  Egypt,  and  Central  Asia,  to  the 
cold,  humid  atmosphere  of  the  Himalayan  and 
Altai  mountains. 

Takinof  the  main  road  that  leads  in  the  direction 


320 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


of  Alexandropol,  I  reached,  via  the  Delijan  Pass 
and  Lake  Goktcha  or  Sevanga,  the  interesting  and 
beautiful  city  of  Titlis,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  pict- 


A    l)rK(_)i;OKTSI    Vn.IAi,!'. — A    RELIGIOUS    SKc  T    IN    NORTHERN  ARMENIA — ON 
THE    ROAD    FROM    ERIVAN    TO    TIFLIS 


uresquely  located  on  the  Kura  River,  directly  in 
the  midst  of  the  Caucasian  Mountains.  The  road 
after  leaving  Erivan  passes  through  a  highly  vol- 
canic region,  being  for  the  most  part  over  ancient 


LAST   VIEW   OF   ARARAT 


323 


lava  beds.  At  the  distance  of  some  thirty  miles, 
we  reach  the  summit  of  the  mountain  range  that 
divides  the  valleys  of  the  Zanga  and  Araxes  rivers 


THRESHING    GRAIN    IN    ARMENIA.       GRAIN    IS    TRODDEN    OUT    RY    HORSES 
BEING    DRIVEN    OVER    IT 


from   the  more   elevated  plateau   in  the   region  of 
Elnofka. 

From  this  summit  we  obtain  our  last  view  of 
Mt.  Ararat,  some  sixty  or  seventy  miles  south- 
ward. The  grand  peaks  of  the  Alagoz  and  Ak- 
Dagh,  rising  on  either  hand  to  the  height  of  14,- 
000  and  12,000  feet  respectively,  lend  some  charm 


324  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

to  the  dreary  aspect  of  this  wild,  desolate  region. 
All  along  this  route  we  passed  with  rapid  fre- 
quency through  the  rude  villages  of  the  many  sin- 
gular religious  sects  scattered    through    this  part 


LITTLE   ISLAND    IN    LAKE    GOKTCHA,   ON  WHICH  THE   ANCIENT    MONASTERY 
OF    SEVANGA    IS    LOCATED 


of  Armenia  :  the   Dukobortsi,  Skoptsy,  Molokani, 
etc. 

At  Elnofka  we  first  meet  the  remarkably  pict- 
uresque little  lake  of  Goktcha,  along  whose  rugged 
shores  the  road  winds  at  a  great  elevation  for 
some  ten  or  twelve  miles,  until  the  Delijan  Pass  is 


LAKE    GOKTCHA 


325 


reached.  This  lake  is  situated  7,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  some  forty  miles  in  length  and 
twent)'    in    breadth.      The    trout   caught    here    are 


W '  ^  ''f^      'W^*^'^^ 


SKUl'TSY    VILLACE — A    PECULIAR    RELIGIOUS    SECT    WITH    REMARKABLE 
CUSTOMS — IN   NORTHERN   ARMENIA 


celebrated  throughout  Russia  for  their  superior 
quality,  and  great  quantities  are  shipped  even  as 
far  as  St.  Petersburg. 


326 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


In  the  lake,  at  a  distance  of  a  few  hundred  feet 
from  the  shore,  and  on  an  island  of  perhaps  fifty 
acres  in  extent,   is  located  the  ancient  Armenian 


^■|^-^c-^%Y 


''  '^%^- 


ON  THE  ROAD  TO  LAKE  SEVANGA,  IN  NORTHERN  ARMENIA,  AND  ON  THE 
ROUTE  FROM  ELNOFKA  TO  AKSTAFA 


monastery  of  Sevanga,  reputed  to  have  been 
founded  in  the  very  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century.  At  Delijan  the  highest  point  on  the 
route    is    reached,   at  an  elevation    of    over   7.000 


DESCENT   INTO    THE    KURA    VALLEY     327 

feet.  From  here  a  most  excellent  road  sharply 
descends  to  the  northward,  through  mountain 
scenery  nowhere  surpassed,  until  the  little  town 
of  Akstafa  is  reached  in  the  rich  valley  of  the 
Kura  River. 


ON    THE    NORTHERN    SLOPE  OF    THE  LESSER  CAUCASIAN    MOUNTAINS,   AFTER 
LEAVING    THE    DELIJAN    PASS 


XVI 

The  Caucasus — Its  locality  and  extent — The  Kura  River — The  Rion 
River — Area  of  the  Caucasus — Population  of  the  same — Moun- 
tain ranges — The  Greater  and  Lesser  Caucasian  Mountains 
joined  by  the  Suram  range — Climate  of  Caucasia — Products  of 
the  soil — Statistics  of  live  stock — Valleys  in  Eastern  Caucasus — 
Western  Caucasia — Roads — Military  road  from  Tiflis  to  Vladi- 
kavkaz— Roads  in  Southern  Caucasia  and  Armenia — Caucasia 
the  gateway  between  Europe  and  Asia — Different  races — Tiflis, 
the  capital  of  Georgia — Its  buildings,  streets,  etc. — The  Georgian 
chieftain,  Schemyl — The  population  of  Tiflis — Many  military 
and  civil  officials — A  trip  to  Borjom,  Abbas-Tuman,  and  Kutais. 

What  is  known  as  the  Caucasus  is  the  great 
isthmus,  some  500  miles  wide,  extending  east 
and  west  between  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas, 
and  joining  the  continents  of  Asia  and  Europe, 
comprising  some  ten  or  a  dozen  governments 
and  provinces  of  Russia.  Running  through  its 
centre  eastward,  is  the  Kura  River,  having  its 
source  in  the  Lesser  Caucasian  range  of  moun- 
tains on  the  extreme  southwest  part  of  the  coun- 
try. Flowing  through  the  narrow  defiles  of  the 
rugged  mountains  for  the  space  of  several  hun- 
dred miles,  its  valley  gradually  widens  beyond 
Tiflis  until  it  becomes  a  vast  level  plain,  forming 


^c  l^^^^^^M 

iKH 

^tmH 

^H 

Af   ^H^H 

i|  J^^H 

^^^I^^^^^^^^^^E!L: 

hb 

J 

^,^,j,  J^iK^B 

19 

BBaSMiLMi  >. tu   ^■'i^^^^l 

^Bl^^^l 

9 

BnilBlt     M 

M 

M^« 

■."''''  ;  tiKJl^nU 

yH^^l 

^^^^^^91  ^  ^^^^1 

AREA   AND    POPULATION  331 

a  border  of  a  hundred  miles  or  more  upon  the 
western  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 

The  Rion  Riv-er  runs  westward,  in  a  similar  way, 
from  the  middle  of  the  Caucasus  into  the  Black 
Sea.  These  valleys,  therefore,  divide  this  great 
isthmus  in  an  east  and  west  direction  into  two 
sections,  the  northern  valley  formed  by  the  Great 
Caucasian  chain  of  mountains,  with  an  average 
altitude  of  nearly  12,000  feet,  and  the  southern 
one  formed  by  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  of 
much   less  height. 

The  whole  contains  about  180,000  square  miles, 
and  has  a  population  of  quite  7,000,000.  It  lies, 
in  almost  equal  parts,  in  Europe  and  Asia.  That 
portion  lying  south  of  the  Great  Caucasian  range 
is  called  the  Trans-Caucasus,  or  Asiatic  Caucasia, 
and  it  contains  about  five-sevenths  of  the  whole 
population.  The  Suram  range  of  mountains,  run- 
ning north  and  south  about  midway  in  the  great 
isthmus,  thus  connects  the  two  chains  of  moun- 
tains on  the  northern  and  southern  borders.  It 
is  from  this  divide  that  the  waterflow  is  eastward 
by  the  Kura  River  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  to 
the  west  by  the  Rion  River  into  the  Black  Sea. 

The  climate  of  the  Caucasus  is  a  genial  one,  in 
fact  almost  subtropical  ;  snow  rarely  falls  in  the 
valleys  or  in  the  lower  levels,  although  the  sum- 
mit   of    the   whole    niajestic    range    of    Caucasian 


332 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


Mountains,    owing   to    their    great    height,    is   per- 
petually covered  by  great  masses  of  ice  and  snow. 
This   ercat   height  of   the  main  chain   of   moun- 
tains,  as  well  as  its  many  branches,  gives  to  this 


STREET    SCENE    IN    TIFLIS 


country  a  remarkable  diversity  of  soil,  climate,  and 
vegetable  production.  The  mountains  supply  ex- 
cellent pasturage  for  cattle  and  sheep,  of  which 
there  are  to  be  seen   great  herds  everywhere.      I 


PRODUCTION    OF    GRAIN  335 

believe  there  are  in  the  Caucasus  over  1,000, 00c 
horses,  6,000,000  cattle,  and  15,000,000  sheep  and 
ofoats. 

The  valleys  are  exceptionally  fertile,  and  pro- 


STREET    SCENE    IN    TIFLIS 


duce  immense  crops  of  wheat  and  other  cereals. 
The  broad  valleys  in  the  eastern  part,  however, 
have  a  deficient  rainfall,  and  therefore  but  little  of 
that  great  tract  of  land  is  cultivated.      But  as  the 


336 


sibp:ria  and  central  asia 


Kura  River  bisects  it  throutjh  its  entire  leno"th, 
and  would  )ield  an  ample  supply  of  water  to  irri- 
gate the  entire  valley,  a  large,  and  one  of  the  most 


VALLEY    OF    THE    KURA    RIVER,    ABOUT    ONE    HUNDRED    MILES    EAST    OF 
TIFLIS,   AND    IN    THE    VICINITY    OF    AKSTAFA 


productive,  regions  on  the  globe  could  readily  be 
reclaimed,  which  would  be  well  suited  for  the  cul- 
ture of  wheat,  Indian  corn,  and,  in  fact,  all  the 
cereals,  as  well  as  grapes  of  unusual  quality. 


ROADS    IN   THE    CAUCASUS  339 

The  western  slope  of  the  Caucasus,  watered  by 
the  Rion,  having'  ample  rainfall,  constitutes  what  is 
perhaps  the  richest  tract  of  land  in  all  Russia.  The 
vegetable  products  of  this  section  are  unequalled 
in  excellence  and  variety.  Indian  corn  grows  here 
and  matures  as  perfectly  as  in  America,  and  a  great 
surplus  is  annually  raised  for  export. 

From  the  ruo'eed  and  almost  insurmountable 
nature  of  the  Great  Caucasian  chain  of  mountains, 
this  country  has  but  few  roads,  the  main  one  be- 
ing the  Georgian  military  road  leading  over  the 
Dariel  Pass,  at  a  height  of  nearly  8,000  feet,  from 
Vladikavkaz  to  Titlis.  There  is  another  croocl  road 
from  Kutais  to  Vladikavkaz,  and  from  the  former 
city  over  the  Lesser  Caucasian  range  to  Abbas- 
Tuman  and  Borjom.  There  are  also  the  military 
roads  running  southward  from  Titlis  toward  the 
northern  border  of  Persia,  via  the  Delijan  Pass 
to  Erivan  and  Djulfa,  and  also  via  Alexandropol 
to   Kars. 

With  a  few  bridle  paths,  such  as  the  famous  one 
from  Derbent  on  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Tiflis,  one 
might  say  a  fairly  complete  record  would  be  given 
of  the  facilities  for  travel  through  the  mountains 
of  this  rugged  though  picturesque  country. 

Having  long  been  the  gateway  between  Asia 
and  Europe  through  which  the  ebb  and  flow  of 
many  races   continued   for  centuries,  this   has  nat- 


340 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


iirally  become  a  region  of  the  most  diverse  eth- 
nical characteristics.  Perhaps  in  no  other  country 
in  the  world,  covering  so  small  a  space,  can  there 
be    found    so    many    different     races     and     tribes. 


CAUCASIANS    AND    THEIR    COSTUMES 


While  some  are  of  the  very  lowest  order,  there 
are  others  that  rank  as  the  noblest  and  grandest 
of  the  human  family.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
Mingrelia  and   Imeritia,  where  perhaps  the  finest 


STREETS    AND    BUILDINGS    IN   TIFLIS      343 

specimens  of  the  human  race  can  be  found.  In 
these  two  provinces  the  women  fully  justif)-  their 
traditional   reputation   for  beauty,  while  many  ex- 


THE    THEATRE    IN    TIFLIS 


amples  can  be  fountl   amonor  the   men  that  are  not 
equalled  anywhere  on  the  globe, 

Tiflis  has  many  wide,  beautiful  avenues  and 
streets,  well  paved,  and  often  1)ordered  by  rows  of 
ornamental  trees.  There  are  man}-  lines  of  tram- 
Avavs,    and     the    streets    are    filled    with    excellent 


344 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


and  comfortable  cabs  and  other  vehicles.  It  has 
many  grand  public  buildings  and  business  blocks. 
The  palace  of  the  governor  of  this  province  is  a 
stately  and    ornate    structure.      A   large  and  well- 


MOUNTED    COSSACKS    IN    PUBLIC    SQUARE    IN    THE    CITY    OF 


appointed  theatre   is   located   on   one   of  the  main 
avenues. 

On  one  of  the  many  rugged  mountain  heights 
that  gird  the  city,  the  ruined  battlements  where 
the  famous  Georgian  chieftain,  Schemyl,  made  his 
last  stand  in  defence  of  his  country,  still  engage 
the  attention  of  the  traveller. 


CAPITAL    OF    THE    CAUCASUS  345 

The  Kura  River,  dividing-  the  city  into  two  nearly 
equal  parts,  and  winding  in  a  deep  and  sinuous 
eoree  throuo'h  it,  not  onl\-  ijrovides  means  for  excel- 


A   BAZAAR    IN    THE    PERSIAN    QUARTER    IX    THE    CITY    OF    TIFLIS 


lent  drainage,  but  gives  in  man)'  places  a  charming 
aspect  to  the  streets  and  city.  Being  the  seat  of 
government  for  the  Caucasus,  there  is  a  large  resi- 
dent military  class  here,  as  well  as  numerous  civil 


346 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


officials    and    also     man)'    representatives    of    the 
nobility. 

Resting  a  day  or  two,  and  visiting  the  many  ob- 


STREET    SCENE    IN    THE    PERSIAN    QUARTER    IN    TIFLIS 


jects  of  interest  in  and  about  the  cit)\  I  made  an 
excursion  to  Borjom  and  Abbas-Tuman,  in  the 
Southern  Caucasus.  This  is  a  region  of  vast 
parks   and    hunting    preserves,    as   it    is   the    sum- 


TO    BORJOM    AND    KUTAIS 


347 


mer  home  of  the  Grand  Duke  Michael,  the  Grand 
Duke  George — the  Crown  Prince — and  the  Grand 
Duchess  Xenia,  together  with  innumerable  other 
court  satellites  and  dignitaries. 


STREET    IN    TilE    PERSIAN    QUARTER    OF    TIFI.IS 


Going  over  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  solitary- 
passes  in  the  world,  where  for  safet)'  an  escort  of 
soldiers  is  provided  much  of  the  way,  we  reached 
Kutais,  located  in  one  of  the  most   fertile   of   val- 


348  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

leys,  where  Indian  corn,  all  the  cereals,  and  fruits 
of  every  variety  grow  in  the  greatest  luxuriance 
and  abundance.  It  was  the  ancient  Cyta,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Colchis  of  the  Greeks,  whence  Jason  and 
his  freebooting  band  went  in  quest  of  the  "  Golden 
Fleece." 


XVII 

Tiflis  to  Mtskheta — Great  antiquity  of  that  city — Founded  by  near 
descendant  of  Noah — Interesting  old  bridge — Pompey's  con- 
quest of  this  country — Route  over  the  famous  Dariel  Pass — 
Journey  up  the  valley  of  the  Kura  River — Soil  and  climate  of 
the  Caucasus — Agricultural  operations — Various  cereals  and 
other  products — Indian  corn — Primitive  implements — Cattle 
and  buffaloes  used  to  draw  the  plough — Cooperative  operations — 
Remarkable  results  in  the  production  of  grain  in  the  Caucasus 
— The  cart  or  arba — The  new  line  of  the  Trans-Caucasian  rail- 
way— Petroleum  pipe  line  over  Suram  Mountains — On  the  road 
to  Borjom — From  Borjom  to  Abbas-Tuman — Over  the  Lesser 
Caucasian  Mountains — Soldiers  for  escorts — Brigands — Magnifi- 
cent view  from  summit — Kutais — Its  history  and  importance — 
Rich  valley  of  the  Rion — Return  to  Tiflis. 

The  railway,  after  leaving-  Tiflis,  follows  some- 
what closely  the  course  of  the  Kura  River  until  it 
reaches  the  small  town  of  Mtskheta.  This  old  city 
is  reputed  to  be  the  most  ancient  in  all  Caucasia; 
indeed,  the  local  chronicler  in  his  pride  assigns  it 
the  very  first  place  in  anticpiit)-,  claiming  that  it  is 
the  oldest  cit\-  in  the  world,  having  been  founded, 
as  is  alleged,  b)'  a  descendant  of  Noah  onl)-  live 
generations  removed.  Its  quaint  appearance  and 
its  old  churches  and  palaces  do,  indeed,  stamp  it 
as  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  the  ruined  fortresses 


350 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


that   cover  the  adjacent  mountains  fully  attest   its 
once  great  strategical  importance. 

Near  the  town  there  is  a  bridgre  over  the   Kura, 


■'■*^'«iBlBWlBF1^» 


GENERAL   VIEW    OF    TIFLIS,   FROM    ELEVATION    IN    WESTERN    TART    OF   THE 
CITY,    LOOKING   EASTWARD 


in  which  can  be  found  old  buttresses  that  evidently 
belonged  to  a  structure  of  very  remote  times. 
It  is  said  to  be  a  part  of  the  bridge  thrown 
across   that   river  by  Pompey  the   Great,  when   in 


CONQUEST    BY    POMPEY   THE    GREAT     351 

pursuit  of  Mithriclatcs.  This  powerful  monarch 
ruled  well  and  happily  over  a  vast  region  in  the 
East,  including  what  is  now  the  Caucasus,  until 
Rome  became  seized  with  the  generous  desire  to 


UN  THE    KURA  RIVER,   IN   THE  WESTERN    SUBURBS  OF  TIKLIS,   ON    THE    ROAD 

TO    BORJOM 


include  his  splendid  possessions  within  the  sphere 
of  her  beneficent  influence,  and  which  finally 
shared  the  fate  of  that  great  empire  when  her 
policy  of  grab  ultimately  brought   inevitable  ruin. 


352 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Here  the  Aragya,  a  small  river,  enters  the  Kura 
from  the  north,  after  flowing  through  a  deep,  nar- 
row, and  rugged  canyon.  It  is  up  the  valle)'  of 
this  river  that  the  military  road  from  TiBis  to  Vlad- 


I.\    THE    KURA    \ALLEV,    BETWEEN    TIFMS    AND    MTSKHETA 


ikavkaz  runs,  until  it  crosses  the  summit  of  the 
Caucasian  ^fountains,  near  ^Vlleti,  over  the  famous 
Dariel  Pass,  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  S,ooo  feet. 
There  are  many  most   charming  bits  of  mountain 


VALLEY    OF    THE    KURA    RIVER  355 

and  landscape  scenery  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Mtskheta.  From  this  place  the  railway  continues 
its  western   course — the  valley  of  the   Kura  in  the 


IN    THE    VALLEY    <.il      1111.    AU.U.VA,    i jN     uil    .Mll.llAI.V    K' )AI)    OVER    THE 
CAUCASL\N    MOUNTAINS,   FROM    TIFLIS    TO    VLADIKAVKAZ 

meanwhile  widening  into  a  broad,  fertile  plain, 
until  it  meets  the  Suram  range  that  links  the 
two  great  northern  and  southern  chains  of  Cau- 
casian   ^lountains   together. 


356 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Pursuing  my  journey  leisurely  through  this  rich 
vallc)',  I  had  the  opportunity  of  observing  some- 
what the  methods  of  agriculture  practised  by 
the  natives.      The  soil  being  well  adapted  to  the 


OVER     THE     DARIEL    PASS,     ON    MILITARY     ROAD     FROM     TIFLIS    TO    VLADI- 
KAVKAZ.     MOUNT   KASBEK   IN   THE   DISTANCE 


culture  of  all  cereals,  and  receiving  an  abundant 
rainfall,  the  valley  lands,  as  also  those  of  the  first 
mountain  slopes,  are  under  cultivation,  while  in 
the  higher  regions  they  are  used  for  pasture.  As 
in  the  case  in  the  Tschernozium  region  of  Russia, 
to  recuperate  the  temporary  depletion  of  the  soil 


AGRICULTURE    IN   THE    CAUCASUS       359 

they  let  the  lands  lie  fallow  for  the  necessary 
period   of  time. 

Wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye  are  the  main 
crops,  and  a  more  or  less  regular  rotation  of  them 
is  observed.  Indian  corn  grows  well  here,  maturing 
in  the  most  perfect  manner,  and  constitutes  the 
main  cereal  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  West- 
ern Caucasus.  In  cases  where  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  land,  Indian  corn  is  planted  immediately  after 
the  wheat  or  barley  crop  has  been  gathered.  The 
insufficient  time  thus  allotted,  however,  does  not 
permit  it  always  to  mature,  in  which  event  it  is 
secured  and  used  as  a  green  fodder  for  cattle. 

The  implements  are  of  the  crudest  and  most  prim- 
itive character.  The  plough  employed  to  break 
up  the  land  is  a  large,  unwieldy  affair,  and  evi- 
dently constructed  by  the  farmer  himself.  It  has  a 
wooden  mould-board,  and  is  in  fact  almost  wholly 
made  of  wood.  It,  however,  turns  a  wide  and, 
what  is  more  to  the  purpose,  a  very  deep  furrow, 
as  from  three  to  eight  pairs  of  oxen  or  buffaloes 
are  used  to  draw  it.  Only  the  Russians  use  horses 
for  ploughing  in  the  Caucasus. 

They  have  a  curious  sort  of  codperative  associa- 
tion of  farmers  here,  its  object  being  to  facilitate 
and  cheapen  farming  operations.  One  member 
who  does  not  possess  a  team  will  furnish  the 
plough  ;    another  who  has   no  plough  will   supply 


360 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


the  team  ;  the  third  and  fourth  will  either  act  as 
ploughmen  or  supply  some  requisite  not  possessed 
by  the  others.  By  this  joint  arrangement  the  lands 
of  the  association  are  ploughed,  when  the  company 


sci.m;  in  a  farm  village  on  the  aragya 


is  dissolved,  after  a  continuance  of  a  fortnight  or 
three  weeks. 

Equally  crude  appliances  are  employed  to  har- 
row the  land,  and  otherwise  put  it  in  condition  to 
receive  the  seed,  and  which  generally  is  in  won- 
derful tilth  when  the  primitive  means  used  are 
considered.      Indeed,  the  great  yield  of  grains  by 


RESULTS    OF    FARMING 


363 


such  simple  means  and  at  such  small  cost  inclines 
one  to  inquire  whether,  after  all,  an  adequate  in- 
crease would  follow  the  use  of  more  perfect  imple- 
ments and  a  more  up-to-date  system  of  farming. 


CART,  OR  AREA,  USED  FOR  FARM  AND  ROAD  PURPOSES 


Certainly,  the  results  in  the  Caucasus  are  not  to 
be  despised,  for  there  is  produced  each  year  in 
that  country,  above  home  requirements,  more  than 
one  hundred  millions  of  bushels  of  erain  available 


364  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

for  export  to  foreign  countries,  or  about  fifteen 
bushels  per  capita — a  result  not  equalled  by  any 
other  country, 

A  curious  vehicle  is  used  for  farm  purposes, 
called  the  arba.  It  is  a  cart  the  wheels  of  which 
are  of  extraordinary  size,  and  usually  fixed  rigidly 
to  the  axle,  thus  rotating  with  it  instead  of  each 
having  an  independent  movement.  At  Mikhai- 
lov  a  road  branches  to  the  southwest,  follow- 
ing up  the  valley  of  the  Kura  as  far  as  Borjom. 
This  road  is  to  be  extended  over  the  Lesser  Cau- 
casian range  of  mountains,  toward  Kars  and  Erze- 
roum. 

The  main  line  of  this,  the  Trans-Caucasian,  rail- 
road continues  westward,  crossing  the  Suram 
Mountains  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  6,000  feet. 
The  engineering  difficulties  encountered  in  this 
portion  of  the  route  were  very  great,  and  the 
road  reflects  credit  upon  both  the  energy  and  skill 
of  those  who  executed  it.  At  the  summit,  the 
road  passes  through  a  tunnel  of  some  two  and  one- 
half  miles  in  length.  As  this  line  is  extensively 
used  to  transport  petroleum  from  Baku  to  Batoum, 
on  the  Black  Sea,  important  arrangements  are 
being  made  to  pump  the  oil  over  this  high  range 
of  mountains,  and  thus  avoid  the  expense  and  diffi- 
culty which  now  attend  its  carriage  by  rail.  Al- 
ready great  tanks  and  pumping  stations  are  being 


PETROLEUM    PIPE    LINES 


367 


constructed  at  Mikhailov  for  this  purpose,  and 
large  pipes  have  been  laid  to  the  summit,  a  dis- 
tance of  some  thirty  miles.  As  the  summit  is  be- 
tween 6,000  and  7,000  feet  above  the  Black  Sea, 


IN   THE    KURA    VALLEY 


the  petroleum  will  be  conducted  thence  in  pipes 
to  Batoum,  and,  flowing  freely  by  its  own  gravit)-, 
it  will  save  the  cost  of  nearly  1 50  miles  of  trans- 
portation by  rail. 

Borjom    is  a   charming   summer  resort,   nestled 


368 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


among"  picturesque  mountains  and  along  the  banks 
of  the  Kura  River,  whose  rapid  current  pours  in 
swift  torrents  from  the  mountain  gorges  above. 
Very  celebrated  mineral  springs  are   located   here, 


PERSIAN    MINISTER  S    RESIDENCE    IN    BORJOiM 


the  waters  of  which  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the 
empire.  Many  splendid  villas  and  residences  are 
scattered  throughout  this  romantic  region.  The 
palace  of  his  Imperial   Highness  the  Grand  Duke 


FROM    BORJOM    TO    ABBAS-TUMAN       369 

Michael  is  beautifully  located  on  the  banks  of  the 
river,  some  distance  above  the  city.  I  was  espe- 
cially interested  in  a  most  artistic  and  ornate 
dwelling  occupied  by  the  Persian  minister,  who 
resides  here. 

A    most    excellent    road    runs   from    Borjom   to 
Abbas-Tuman,  a  distance  of  about  sixty  miles.    As 


THE    SUMMER    PALACE    OF    HIS    IMPERIAL    HIGHNESS    THE    GRAND    DUKE 
MICHAEL,    ON    THE    BANKS    OF    THE    KIRA    RIVER,    NEAR    BORJOM 


relays  are  provided  at  intervals  of  twelve  miles,  a 
dash  through  this  lovely  country  is  most  charming. 
At  Abbas-Tuman,  the  Crown  Prince  George — 
second  son  of  the  late  Czar — has  a  rustic  palace 
embowered  in  the  groves  of  a  beautiful  park.  From 
Abbas-Tuman  to  Kutais  is  a  distance  of  nearly 
eighty  miles,  which  is  usualh-  dri\'en  in  a  day.  The 
road  to  the  summit  leads  up  the  steep  slope  of  the 


370 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


mountain,  through  a  wild  and  dreary  region.  These 
mountain  passes  are  still  infested  with  many  brig- 
ands, and  many  thrilling  stories  are  told  of  their 
terrible  doings,  even  in  spite  of  all  the  precautions 
of  the  government. 


HIS    IMPERIAL    HIGHNESS    GRAND    DUKE    MICHAEL    ON    HIS    DAILY    DRIVE    IN 

BORJOM 


For  the  safety  of  the  inhabitants  and  travellers, 
the  whole  country  is  protected  by  Cossacks,  and 
all  along  the  road  there  are  soldiers  stationed  at 
intervals  of  a  few  versts.  When  a  carriage  passes, 
several  soldiers  follow  until  they  are  released  by 
the  next  squad.      They  increase  in   number  as  the 


ESCORT    OF   SOLDIERS  373 

summit  is  approached,  where,  when  reached,  there 
are  usually  ten  or  a  dozen  soldiers  as  escorts.  It 
is  beyond  words  to  describe  the  grandeur  of  the 
panorama    that    suddenly    bursts    upon    the   view 


SOLDIER    ON    THE   MOUNTAIN    SIDE,    AFTER    LEAVING    ABBAS-TUMAN,    ON 
THE   ROAD   TO   KUTAIS,  OVER   THE   LESSER   CAUCASIAN   MOUNTAINS 


as  the    summit    is   attained,   which    is    done    most 
abruptly. 

The     stately     chain     of     Caucasian     Mountains 
stretches  before   you,   extending  several   hundred 


374 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


miles  to  the  northwest.  As  they  are  nearly  loo 
miles  distant,  and  viewed  across  the  broad  valley 
of  the  Rion,  an  immense  section  of  this  ereat 
range  can  be  seen,  which  is  snow-capped  through- 
out almost  its  whole  length.    Projecting  above  the 


STRKET    SCENE   IN    KUTAIS 


common  summit-level  are  the  ice-tipped  peaks  of 
the  Elbruz,  away  off  in  the  distance,  to  the  left, 
and  rising  to  a  height  of  18,500  feet;  of  Ikhara, 
Koshtan  Tau,  and  Dych  Tau,  over  i  7,000  feet  in 
height  ;  and  finally,  far  to  the  right,  the  symmet- 
rical   Kazbek,    rising    16,500   feet   above   the   sea. 


BEAUTIFUL    MOUNTAIN    VIEW 


377 


Thus  a  stretch  of  fully  300  miles  of  this  grand 
range  of  mountains  lies  before  yon.],  clothed,  for 
much  of    its  height,  in  a  mantle  of  snow. 

A  rapid  drive  of  seven  hours  brings  us  to  the 


MARKET    SCENE    IN    KUTAIS 


important  city  of  Kutais,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  that  name.  It  is  on  the  Rion,  or,  as  the 
Greeks  called  it,  the  Phasis  River.  It  was  from 
this  name  that  the  word  "  pheasant  "  was  derived. 


378  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

as  this  fowl  was  once  in  great  abundance  in  the 
mountains  at  the  head-waters  of  the  Phasis  River. 
Kutais  Hes  in  the  midst  of  one  of  the  richest  coun- 
tries in  the  Avorld,  where  all  vegetation  grows  pro.- 
fusely.  It  is  said  that  almost  all  kinds  of  fruits, 
even  apples,  pears,  apricots,  etc.,  grow  abundantly 
in  a  wild  state  in  the  neighboring  forests.  In  view 
of  the  richness  of  this  country,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  the  covetous  Greek  was  tempted  to  leave  his 
barren  shores  to  seek  the  golden  fleece  in  this 
highly  favored  land. 

Kutais  has  many  interesting  and  attractive  mar- 
kets and  bazaars,  at  which  curious  and  beautiful 
fabrics  in  silk  and  wool  are  sold.  There  is  a 
school  here  of  much  importance,  designed  espe- 
cially for  instruction  in  horticulture.  Kutais  has 
one  of  the  finest  examples  of  Georgian  architec- 
ture, in  a  church  erected  in  the  eleventh  century. 
Tempted  by  its  wealth,  the  city  has  been  plun- 
dered and  destroved  asfain  and  aeain  bv  the  Per- 
sians,  Mongolians,  Turks,  and  other  invading 
races. 


XYIII 

Return  to  Tiflis — Special  permit  to  visit  Central  Asia — Great  cour- 
tesy of  the  American  Ambassador,  Hon.  E.  A.  Hitchcock — 
Return  to  Baku — Passage  across  the  Caspian  Sea — Arrival  at 
Krasnovodsk — A  look  about  that  city — Rapid  growth  of  same 
— Its  harbor  and  other  natural  advantages — Will  become  an 
important  city — Railway  station — Splendid  structure — Curious 
mixture  of  natural  products — Blending  of  Oriental  and  Occi- 
dental races — Possible  result — Russia's  fondness  for  American 
products — -Use  of  same  in  Russia— Her  probable  future  demand 
for  Western  products — America's  opportunity — Trains  on  the 
Trans-Caspian  railway — Courtesy  of  the  railway  officials — Emi- 
grants to  the  far  East — Departure  from  Krasnovodsk — New 
petroleum  field — Minerals  and  metals  here — Uzum-Ada,  the  old 
terminus  of  railway — The  plains  of  Turcomania — Persian 
Mountains — Central  Asia — A  vast  depressed  basin — Caspian 
Sea  below  ocean  level — Similar  depression  in  Sahara  Desert — 
Russia's  Central  Asian  possessions — Sterility  of  Turcomania 
due  to  lack  of  rainfall — Oasis  of  Merv — Strabo's  reference  to  it 
— Three  great  level  plateaus — Amu-Daria  and  Syr-Daria 
Rivers. 

On  returning  to  Tiflis,  the  ever-present  desire 
of  visiting  Central  Asia  again  possessing  me,  my 
guide  suggested  that  I  call  upon  Prince  Gallatzin, 
the  Governor-General  of  the  Caucasus,  who  might 
possibly  issue  the  necessary  permit.  As  was  the 
case  at  Baku,  this  functionary  informed  me  that 
he  had  no  authority  to  issue  one,  and  that  it  could 


380  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

be  obtained  only  by  direct  application  to  the  Min- 
istry at  St.  Petersburg.  In  order  to  save  time,  he, 
however,  advised  me  to  communicate  by  telegraph 
with  the  United  States  Ambassador  at  that  city, 
feeling  assured  that  by  his  intervention  a  permit 
would  be  readily  secured.  This  I  accordingly 
did. 

Through  the  great  courtesy  and  prompt  appli- 
cation of  our  most  efficient  /\mbassador  there,  the 
Hon.  E.  A.  Hitchcock,  in  a  wonderfully  short 
space  of  time  I  received  a  long  telegram  direct 
from  the  Russian  Minister  of  the  Interior,  eivine 
the  desired  permit,  with  the  information,  also,  that 
he  had  telegraphed  instructions  to  the  Governor 
of  East  Caucasus  at  Baku,  to  the  Governor  of  Tur- 
comania  at  Merv,  the  military  agent  at  Bokhara, 
and  the  Governor  of  Turkestan  at  Samarkand  and 
Tashkent.  Armed  with  this  magic  "  open  ses- 
ame," I  at  once  set  out  on  my  journey.  Before 
going,  however,  I  took  the  precaution  to  employ 
an  additional  guide,  who  was  familiar  with  the 
various  languages  of  that  country  of  mixed 
tongues. 

On  arriving  at  Baku,  I  found  that  the  governor 
had  already  called  upon  the  proprietor  of  the 
hotel,  and  had  left  instructions  to  be  informed  of 
our  arrival.  He  received  us  with  every  mark  of  ci- 
vility and  courtesy,  and  arranged  for  our  departure 


ACROSS    THE    CASPIAN    SEA  381 

on  the  boat  that  evening.  He  also  detailed  the 
police  agent  of  the  city  to  wait  upon  us,  which 
enabled  me  to  see  many  things  in  this  curious 
city  that  I  was  unable  to  see  on  my  former  visit. 

Our  passage  across  the  Caspian  Sea  naturally 
was  a  boisterous  one,  since  it  is  numbered  among 
the  most  tempestous  waters.  Being  fringed  on 
most  of  its  western  and  southern  borders  by  two 
mountain  ranges,  among  the  highest  on  the  globe, 
and  its  eastern  shore  forming  the  western  verge 
of  the  hot,  arid  plains  of  Turcomania,  such  con- 
ditions of  extreme  heat  and  cold  here  exist  as 
are  likely  to  result  in  the  sudden  development  of 
violent  grales. 

Arriving  at  Krasnovodsk  in  the  morning,  we 
found  that  the  train  for  the  east  did  not  leave  un- 
til the  evening.  This  gave  us  an  opportunity  ot 
looking  about  this  new  city,  the  recently  estab- 
lished terminus  of  this  great  railway. 

Uzum-Ada,  about  sixty  miles  to  the  southeast, 
on  the  bay  of  that  name,  was  formerly  the  terminus 
of  the  railway.  On  account  of  the  excellent  har- 
bor, the  fact  that  it  shortens  the  sea  route  b)' 
nearly  seventy  miles,  and  other  advantages,  the 
present  location  was  selected  about  three  years 
ago.  Up  to  that  time,  it  was  an  obscure  Tartar 
fishing  village.  It  is  now  a  busy,  thriving  town  of 
nearly  10,000  inhabitants,  with  wide  streets,  excel- 


382  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

lent  public   and    private   buildings,  electric  lights, 
etc. 

A   low,   rocky,   and  sterile  range  of  mountains. 


KRASNOVODSK    AND    HARBOR,    THE    WESTERN    TERMINUS    OF    THE    TRANS- 
CASPIAN    RAILWAY,    ON    THE    EASTERN    SHORE    OF    THE    CASPIAN    SEA 


sweeping  from  the  shore  in  a  semicircular  course, 
encloses  a  space  like  a  large  amphitheatre,  whereon 
the  city  is  built.  The  railway  station  here  is  a 
rare  gem  of  architecture.      It    is   entirely   of   hewn 


RAILWAY    STATION    AT    KRASNOVODSK     383 

stone,  and  merges  in  its  composition  the  choicest 
elements  of  Eastern  art.  It  is  a  splendid  com- 
posite of  Persian,  Saracenic,  and  Central  Asian, 
with  even  a  tinge  of  Chinese  and  Hindu.  The 
station,  like  most  of  those  at  the  main  towns  of 
this  line,  has  a  very  large  and  high  central  room 
used  as  a  combined  waiting  and  dining  room, 
while  at  either  end  of  the  building  are  located  the 
various  apartments  used  for  the  purposes  of  the 
company. 

In  this  zone,  where  the  East  and  the  West  over- 
lap in  such  a  bewildering  manner,  some  strange 
affiliations  occur.  In  the  main  room,  with  its  ex- 
quisite Mohammedan  doors  and  windows,  can  be 
seen  depending  from  a  splendid  ceiling  of  the  purest 
arabesque  and  decorated  in  the  most  enchanting 
colors,  a  huo-e  Venetian  chandelier,  holdino-  incan- 
descent  electric  lights,  made  in  Austria,  and  sup- 
plied with  a  current  from  an  engine  and  dynamo 
built  in  Germany.  In  the  middle  of  the  room  is  a 
laree  and  eleofantlv  carved  table  from  France  and 
chairs  from  Italy,  while  in  one  corner  of  the  room, 
for  the  purpose  of  weighing  luggage,  is  a  splendid 
American  platform  scale  made  in  Vermont. 

Such  a  medley  of  arts  and  confusion  of  races 
lead  to  some  strange  reflections.  The  rapidly 
erowinof  conflict  between  and  the  ever-increasinof 
tendency  toward  a  blending  of  things  Occidental 


384 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


and  Oriental,  suggest  a  possible  ultimate  fusion, 
out  of  which  there  may  arise  a  neutral  state  of 
races  wherein  the  softening   idealism  of  the  East 


NEW    RAILWAY    STATION    Al     kK  \s\()\  Ol )sK,    THE    WESTERN    TERMINI'S    OP' 
THE   TRANS-CASPIAN    RAILWAY 

will  give  a  soul  to  the  inflexible  materiality  of  the 
West,  which  in  return  will  impart  a  substance  to 
Oriental  dreams  and  abstractions. 


AMERICAN    PRODUCTS    IN    RUSSIA        385 

In  my  travels  throughout  this  great  empire,  it 
was  impossible  for  me  not  to  observe  everywhere 
the  many  evidences  of  Russian  fondness,  and  even 
partiality  for,  American  products,  especially  ma- 
chinery. Even  the  locomotive  that  drew  the  train 
over  the  first  section  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway, 
and  also  that  used  on  the  Trans-Caspian  railway 
to  Askabad,  were  American,  built  in  Philadelphia. 

On  the  Siberian  route  it  is  no  uncommon  thing 
to  see,  at  the  stations,  American  agricultural  ma- 
chinery destined  to  be  used  in  those  regions.  At 
one  station  I  saw  a  freight  train  in  which  there  was 
a  car  loaded  with  mining  machinery  and  ma- 
chinists' tools,  the  product  of  American  workshops. 

Considering  the  immense  population  of  this 
countr)',  its  long  and  steadfast  friendship  for 
America,  and  the  still  further  fact  that  in  order  to 
develop  her  own  incalculable  resources  and  those 
of  the  other  Asiatic  nations  into  which  she  is  car- 
rying her  influence,  there  must  be  created  wants 
far  in  excess  of  her  own  ability  to  supph',  thus 
necessitating  (extensive  purchases  from  other  na- 
tions, it  seems  evident  that,  by  a  proper  effort  on 
our  part,  this,  of  all  countries  in  the  world,  could 
become  the  most  important  and  profitable  field  for 
American  enterprise.  If,  unfortunately,  we  should 
nep^lect  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  full  advantaijes  of 
a  situation  so  promising,  I  trust  at  least  that  we 
25 


386  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

will  not  suffer  ourselves  to  be  decoyed  into  an  atti- 
tude of  hostility  to  Russia,  with  no  better  result 
than  to  play  into  the  hands  of  some  ambitious  and 
selfish  nation. 

There  are  trains  leaving  daily  for  the  East  on 
the  Trans-Caspian  railway,  but  as  they  are  mixed 
freight  and  passenger  trains,  designed  to  carry  sol- 
diers, emigrants,  merchandize,  and  material  for 
new  railways  under  construction  farther  on,  they 
offer  no  facilities  or  comforts  for  the  traveller. 
There  is,  however,  a  train  that  leaves  here  three 
times  a  week,  consisting  wholly  of  second,  third, 
and  fourth  class  passenger  cars,  for  the  purpose  of 
accommodating  the  better  class  of  travel,  which  is 
rapidly  on  the  increase.  This  train,  usually  com- 
posed of  twelve  or  fifteen  cars,  presents  a  neat 
and  pleasing  appearance,  all  the  cars  being  painted 
snow  white,  even  to  the  locomotive.  They  are 
plain  in  the  interior,  with  uncovered  seats,  and 
but  little  comfort.  Those  who  design  travelling 
at  night  are  obliged  to  provide  themselves,  before 
startino-  with  beddinor,  linen,  towels,  etc.  As  I 
have  before  stated,  this  line  being  a  military  road, 
all  the  officials  of  the  train,  the  engineer,  the  fire- 
man, and  even  the  workmen  on  the  track,  are 
drawn  from  the  army. 

On  presenting  my  passport  and  telegram  to  the 
proper  official,  he  at  once,  with  the  utmost  polite- 


J^ 

/^m 

a                                                                                                  j 

i 
j                                                                                                  ■ 

jfe±:— ^Bk 

^'  '''^ —    iH 

L 

k 

mil    '    1 

HHL 

^^^^1^^^ 

If-g 

IJjj^ 

EMIGRAN7S    TO    FAR    ASIA  389 

ness,  conducted  me  to  the  train  and  assigned  me 
a  whole  compartment.  While  the  train  was  being- 
made  up,  I  noticed  that  a  large  number  of  emi- 
grants were  embarking  on  it. 

On  in(|uiry  I  was  informed  that  it  was  a  group 
of  over  100  families,  which  the  government  was 
assisting  to  emigrate  from  the  overcrowded  and  at 
present  unfortunate  district  of  Saratov,  on  the 
Volga,  As  indicating  the  paternal  polic)-  of  the 
government,  as  well  as  the  growing  efflux  of  peo- 
ple from  the  older  into  the  newer  provinces  of 
the  empire,  I  would  say  that  they  were  bound  for 
the  extreme  eastern  part  of  Turkestan,  150  miles 
beyond  Tashkent,  and  that  the  government  was 
granting  fifty  to  eight)-  acres  of  land  to  each  adult, 
besides  100  rubles  to  each  family. 

On  leaving  Krasnovodsk,  the  train  for  a  short 
space  runs  directly  eastward,  when  it  bears 
south,  running  for  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
miles  along  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  at 
the  foot  of  the  low,  rugged  range  of  mountains 
that  dip  sharply  into  its  waters.  At  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles,  the  road  crosses  at  a  low  level  a 
somewhat  extensive  peninsula,  upon  which  I  no- 
ticed a  number  of  what  seemed  to  be  new  oil 
wells.  I  was  told  that  recent  explorations  disclose 
important  petroleum  deposits  in  these  regions, 
and  that  there   are   now  in   operation  some  twenty 


390 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


wells,  with  many  new  ones  being  sunk.  It  is  said 
that  already  there  is  enough  produced  here  to 
meet  the  present  wants  of  this  side  of  the  Caspian, 


NEW    OIL   WELLS    RECENTLY    OPENED    ON   THE    SHORES    OF    THE    CASPIAN 
SEA,    ON    THE    LINE    OF    RAILWAY    BELOW    KRASNOVODSK 

with  every  prospect  of  an  ample  surplus  for  export 
at  an  early  day. 

It  might  be  added  that  the  hills  and  mountains 
in  this  vicinity  abound  in  iron,  copper,  salt,  sul- 
phur, graphite,  and  other  minerals   that  must  ulti- 


GREAT   CENTRAL    BASIN  393 

inately  be  a  resource  of  g'reat  value  to  the  vast 
and  purely  agricultural  regions  eastward. 

On  leaving  Uzum-Ada,  the  original  terminus  of 
the  line,  the  railway  takes  a  due  southern  course 
and  enters  at  once  upon  the  arid  plains  of  Turco- 
niania  that,  like  a  great  sheet  of  water,  stretch 
north  and  south  through  a  distance  of  nearly  700 
miles,  at  a  heifrht  of  nearlv  200  feet  above  the 
sea.  As  the  low  range  of  mountains  cutting  from 
the  Caspian  eastward  into  the  desert  slowl)-  re- 
cedes from  the  sight,  there  comes  as  gradually  into 
view  the  lofty  mountains  that  rise  like  a  mighty  ram- 
part from  the  plains  of  Turcomania,  and  running 
for  400  miles  along  the  northern  border  of   Persia. 

Central  Asia  presents  some  remarkable  geologi- 
cal and  ijh)sical  characteristics.  In  a  somewhat 
irregular  form,  and  covering  an  area  of  nearly 
1,500,000  square  miles,  it  constitutes  a  great  de- 
pressed basin,  even  descending — as  in  the  case  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  with  an  area  of  nearly  200,000 
square  miles — to  some  depth  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Into  this  great  basin,  the  \'olga,  Ural,  and 
Emba  rivers  from  the  north  ;  the  Atok,  Murofab, 
Amu-Daria,  Syr-Daria,  and  many  other  streams 
from  the  south  and  east,  pour  their  mighty  floods 
— chiefl\-  into  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas,  which, 
for  the  want  of  a  channel  to  the  ocean,  find  their 
only  outlet  b\'  evaporation. 


394 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


A  similar  depression  exists  in  Africa,  with  the 
difference  that  it  is  smaller  in  extent,  and  that  there 
are  no  large  rivers  discharging  into  it.  While  at 
Chott-Melgig,  in  the  northern  Sahara,  some  years 
at^o,  I   was  informed    that    the    shallow    salt    lake 


STATION    ON    TRANS-CASPIAN    RAILWAY 


there  lay  some  hundreds  of  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  that  if  the  waters  of  that 
sea  were  conducted  into  it  by  a  canal — regarded 
by  engineers  as  practicable — a  large  interior  sea 
would  be  formed. 

What   is  known  as   Russia's  Central  Asian   pos- 


PLAINS    OF   TURCOMANIA  395 

sessions,  containing'  nearly  1,500,000  square  miles, 
are  made  up  of  the  provinces  of  Turcomania,  Bok- 
hara, and  Khiva — still  semi-independent  khanates 
— Turkestan,  and  the  important  though  somewhat 
indefinite  territory  recently  acquired  in  Ferghan 
and  the  Pamirs,  near  the  northwest  border  of  India. 

Turcomania  is,  throughout,  an  almost  level  plain, 
extending  from  the  northern  border  of  Afghanis- 
tan in  a  northwestern  direction  about  800  miles, 
and  with  a  width  of  300  or  400  miles.  A  great 
portion  of  it  is  almost  destitute  of  vegetation, 
excepting  a  sort  of  dry  tufted  grass,  the  natural 
product  of  an  arid  soil,  and  in  which  the  camel 
finds  a  fairly  nutritious  food.  The  sterility  of 
this  country  is  almost  wholly  due  to  the  lack  of 
rainfall,  as  its  soil  possesses  great  natural  fertilit)-, 
being  no  doubt,  throughout  much  of  its  extent,  the 
deposit  in  primeval  times  of  those  great  rivers 
now  running  into  the  Aral  Sea,  and  which  once, 
as  is  very  probable,  found  their  way  into  the  Cas- 
pian Sea. 

All  along  its  western  border,  skirted  by  the  Per- 
sian mountains,  which  send  down  many  streams 
that  are  used  for  irrigation,  there  is  a  broad  zone 
of  wonderfully  productive  land  reaching  far  into 
the  plain,  a  test  of  what  a  great  part  of  this 
country  might  become  with  an  adequate  supply  of 
water.     Remote  as  this  may  seem,  it  is  not  among 


396 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


the  impossibilities,  as  the  g;reat  Amu-Daria,  run- 
ning along  and  near  the  eastern  border  of  Tiirco- 
nuinia,   is   of   a   sufficient   elevation   to    permit    its 


VIEW    ACROSS    THE    PLAINS    OF    TURCOMANIA,    BETWEEN    ASKABAD    AND 
DUSHAK,    ON    THE    TRANS-CASPIAN    RAILWAY 

waters  beine  carried  and   distributed   throu^jh  the 
greater  part  of  the  plain  below. 

The  oasis  of  INIerv — the  southeastern  portion  of 
this  province,  and  watered  by  the  Murgab  River, 
havine   its   source    in    the    Afghan    mountains — is 


POSSIBLE    IRRIGATION  397 

little  inferior  in  size,  and  in  its  marvellous  fertility 
and  wonderful  productiveness  is  quite  equal,  to 
the  Nile  valley.  Strabo,  in  referring  to  this  re- 
gion, says  that  the  vines  sometimes  grew  so  large 
that  two  men  with  outstretched  arms  could  scarce- 
ly circle  them,  and  that  bunches  of  grapes  were 
produced  two  cubits  in  length. 

By  a  rather  easy  ascent,  the  level  plateau  of 
Bokhara  is  reached,  a  countr\"  of  al)()ut  150,000 
square  miles  area,  unsurpassed  for  the  richness  of 
its  soil  and  the  xariet}'  and  exuberance  of  its  prod- 
ucts. Through  another  incline  is  reached  the 
last  plateau  of  Turkestan,  which  stretches  away 
to  the  foot-hills  of  the  Altai  Mountains  and  to 
the  southern  border  of  Sil)eria. 

Russia's  Central  Asian  possessions  may  there- 
fore be  roughly  described  as  consisting  of  three 
great  level  plateaus,  rising  in  successive  steps  one 
above  the  other,  and  extending  from  the  Caspian 
Sea  in  the  west  to  the  western  l^order  of  China  in 
the  east.  The  .Syr-Daria  traverses  the  lower  bor- 
der of  Turkestan,  the  waters  of  which  it  is  possible 
to  turn  into  the  khanates  of  Bokhara  and  Khiva. 
As  in  like  manner  the  Amu-Daria  runs  along  the 
lower  border  of  Khiva  and  P)()khara,  its  waters 
might  similarh'  be  turned  into  Furcomania,  which 
would  make  these  countries  among  tht;  richest  and 
most  producti\'(^  on  the  globe. 


398  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

A  somewhat  similar  distribution  of  these  waters 
must  have  existed  in  former  times,  converting 
into  fertile  plains  great  areas  of  what  are  now 
waste,  uncultivated  lands.  This  alone  can  account 
for  the  presence  of  those  immense  multitudes  that 
once  peopled  these  regions,  the  evidence  of  which 
one  discovers  on  all  hands. 


XIX 

The  old  bed  of  tlie  Amu-Daria  River — Across  a  desert — Oasis  of 
Kizj'l-Arvat — Among  tine  Turcomanians — A  splendid  race — His 
dwelling — Women  in  Turcomania — Custom  of  polygamy — Pur- 
chase of  wives — Weaving  of  rugs  and  carpets — Their  crude 
device  for  same — Work  done  mainly  by  girls — Inferiority  of  the 
new  to  the  old  product — Wealth  of  the  Turcoman — Their  food, 
clothing,  etc.— The  camel — Roads  in  Turcomania — Caravans 
of  camels — Along  the  Persian  border — Askabad — New  and 
beautiful  city — Vegetable  products  of  this  region — Culture  of 
cotton — Old  Teke  towns. 

The  railway,  after  leaving  the  Caspian  Sea,  for 
a  space  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles  follows  a  well-de- 
fined ancient  river-bed,  considered  by  scientists 
to  be  that  of  the  mighty  Amu-Daria,  of  which  some 
engineers  claim  to  have  discovered  a  fairly  trace- 
able channel  from  Kerki,  running  clue  west  and 
entering  the  Caspian  Sea  at  a  point  near  where 
the  railway  leaves  the  shore.  For  nearly  150  miles 
the  railway  crosses  a  true  desert,  destitute  alike 
of  vegetation  and  water,  the  latter  having  to  be 
hauled  for  the  purposes  of  the  road  and  for  do- 
mestic uses  along  the  entire  section  from  Kizyl- 
Arvat,  a  point  where  the  line  touches  the  Kuran- 
Dagh,  a  spur  of  the  Kopet-Dagh  or  Persian 
Mountains,    and    where    fresh    water    is    first    ob- 


400 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


taincd.  A  perennial  stream  of  water  here,  de- 
scending from  the  mountains  and  used  for  irriga- 
tion, has  created  an  oasis  of  considerable  size,  the 


TURCOMANIAN    TARTARS    AT    KIZYI.-ARVAT      STATION    0.\    THE    TKANS- 
CASi'IAN    RAILWAY 


vegetal  wealth  and  beauty  of  which  was  in  most 
agreeable  contrast  with  the  sterile  country 
through   which  we  passed. 


AMONG    THE    TURCOMANS 


403 


Here  we  find  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  the 
Turcoman  Tartars,  whose  dreary  and  solitary  do- 
main extends  indefinite!)-  to  the  west  and  north. 
This  is  ph)sically  b\-  far  the  most   splendid  race   I 


TURCOMAN     \II  I.Ai;i;     (i\     THE    PLAIN'S    OF   TURCOMANIA,     l;i;i\VI  I  N    KIZYL- 
AKVAT    AND    ASKABAD 


have  ever  seen.  They  are,  without  exception, 
unusually  tall,  much  above  the  medium,  and  it  is 
rare  to  meet  with  one  of  ordinary  stature.  Even 
men  of  advanced   age  walk  with   a  step   so   elastic 


404  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

and  in  a  manner  so  erect  as  to  excite  wonder. 
They  possess  an  open  and  often  a  pleasing  coun- 
tenance, regular  features,  and  almost  always  a 
piercing-  and  beautiful  eye.  Like  the  Kirghiz, 
they  live  in  tents.  Unlike  that  race,  however, 
who  ordinarily  cluster  their  tents  into  villages,  the 
Turcoman  scatters  his  at  wider  intervals  through- 
out the  country  he  occupies.  The  admirable 
physical  and  other  traits  of  this  people  are  no 
doubt  the  outgrowth  of  the  open,  independent 
life  they  have  so  long  lived. 

The  tent  of  the  Turcoman  is  round,  usually 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  its 
exterior  aspect  is  anything  but  attractive,  being 
often  weather-worn  and  dingy.  In  passing  into 
it,  no  change  can  be  more  startling.  It  is  like  the 
rapid  shifting  of  a  scene  in  a  theatre,  so  sudden 
is  the  transformation.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive 
anything  more  exquisite  than  the  interior  one 
often  sees  in  the  tent  of  a  well-to-do  Turcoman. 
The  floor  is  covered  with  carpets  and  rugs  of 
charming  designs  and  exquisite  coloring.  The 
walls  are  encircled  with  lovely  hangings  and 
tapestries,  and  the  door  shielded  by  portieres  of 
richest  design,  all  of  which  is  the  handiwork  of 
this  singular  race. 

The  women  do  not,  as  is  so  often  the  case  with 
the  men,  carry  into  their  advancing  years  the  rem- 


TURCOMAN    TENTS 


405 


nants  of  the  grace  and  beauty  that  marked  the 
vigorous  period  of  their  life.  They  are,  more- 
over, only  of  medium  stature.  The  girls,  as  a 
rule,   have    only    ordinary    attractions,  ^but    some- 


TUKCOMAN    TENTS 


times  are  distinctly  beautiful.  They  literally  be- 
spangle themselves  with  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments, coins,  etc.,  and  they  display  rings  of 
turquoise,    and    such    other    jewels    as    they    can 


4o6 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


command.  'I'hcir  costume  is  of  graceful  design, 
richl)-  enibroidercd,  and  of  enchanting  coloring, 
the  invariable  product  of  their  own  fair  hands. 


TURCDMAN     lAKTAKS    AT    CKOK-TEPE,     STATION    ON     1111.     1  K AXS-CASPIAN 
RAILWAY 


Polygamy  is  still  prevalent  among  them,  as  is 
also  the  custom  of  purchasing  their  wives.  A  fa- 
ther is  esteemed  fortunate  who  has  a  large  family 
of  daughters,  as  they  are  sure  to  bring  him  a  rich 


WEAVING    ORIENTAL    RUGS  407 

reward,  the  more  comely  selling"  for  irom  500  to 
800  and  even  1,000  rubles.  The  father  who  has 
an  equal  number  of  daughters  and  sons  applies 
the  money  obtained  by  the  disposal  of  his  daugh- 
ters to  the  purchase  of  wives  for  his  sons.  He  is 
distinctly  the  lord  and  master  of  his  household, 
and  their  habits  and  customs  often  discover  the 
ancient  patriarchal  traces  of  the  Eastern  races. 

Beino"  anxious  to  see  how  the  beautiful  car- 
pets  and  rugs  were  produced,  which  connoisseurs 
here  now  esteem  as  the  richest  product  of  East- 
ern textile  art,  I  visited  quite  a  number  of  their 
homes  for  that  purpose.  The  smaller  ones  are 
woven  in  the  tents  occupied  by  the  famil)-,  but  for 
the  larger  ones  a  temporar\'  canopy  is  erected  near 
by.  The  ground  is  covered  by  some  old  carpet  or 
other  protection  for  the  future  fabric.  Two  poles, 
of  a  length  suited  to  the  width  of  the  carpet  to  be 
made,  are  placed  at  a  distance  apart  to  correspond 
with  its  length.  From  one  pole  to  the  other  the 
warp  is  extended  and  spaced  to  suit  the  fineness 
of  the  carpet.  The  warp  is  made  taut  b\-  twisting 
one  of  the  poles,  which  are  securely  staked  to  the 
ground  to  prevent  them  being  drawn  together,  and 
to  preserve  the  necessary  tightness.  As  the  only 
remaining  bit  of  mechanism  is  a  heavy  metallic 
comb  used  from  time  to  time  to  drive  the  pile 
firmlv  together,  it  will   be   seen   that   the  rude  sim- 


4o8 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


plicity  of  their  appliances  is  only  equalled  by  the 
marvellous  results  produced  by  it. 

The  work  is  done  almost  wholly  by  women,  and 
most  generally  by  young  girls.     They  are  seated 


TURCOMAN    GIRLS    WEAVING    CARPETS    UNDER    A    TEMPORARY    CANOPY 
ADJOINING    THEIR    TENT 


on  the  orround  in  a  row,  each  Qrirl  havino-  before 
her  a  number  of  woollen  balls  of  the  various  colors 
required  by  the  proposed  designs  of  the  carpet. 
A  short   leneth   or  tuft  of  the  woollen    thread    is 


ORIENTAL    CARPETS   AND    RUGS         409 

dexterously  entwined  between  several  threads  of 
the  warp,  and  secured  by  a  loop  which  is  cut  off 
at   a   length  about  double  that  which   the  pile  is 


TURCOMAN  TENT  ON  THE  PLAINS  OF  TARTARY 

Intended  to  be  when  finished.  After  several 
courses  are  completed,  the  pile  is  driven  together 
by  the  metallic  comb,  and   is  then  clipped  off  with 


410  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

great  care  and  skill  to  the  proper  length.  The 
most  astounding  thing  in  the  whole  process  is 
that  no  pattern  whatever  is  used,  the  women  rely- 
ing wholly  upon  their  memory  and  the  eye  for  the 
arrangement  of  the  colors  and  development  of 
the  pattern  and  designs.  As,  in  the  case  of  very 
fine  examples,  scarcely  more  than  twenty  to  thirty 
square  inches  can  be  completed  by  a  single  opera- 
tive in  a  day,  some  of  the  larger  carpets  require 
an  incredibly  long  time  for  completion.  I  was 
shown  one  of  moderate  size,  on  which  three  girls 
had  been  working  for  over  four  months,  which 
was  not  yet  three-fourths  done.  It  is  said  that 
several  girls  join  together  and  purchase  the 
necessary  material,  sharing  in  the  end  jointly  the 
proceeds  of  their  united  labor. 

It  is  at  once  apparent  to  any  one  at  all  versed 
in  this  art  that  the  modern  product  is  vastly  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  olden  time.  They  themselves 
are  fully  aware  of  this,  for  when  displaying  a  sam- 
ple, if  you  ask  them  if  it  is  an  antique,  they  at  once 
ruefully  shake  their  heads,  as  if  regretting  to  confess 
that  they  no  longer  create  those  miracles  of  texture 
and  color  of  their  ancestors.  It  is  well  nigh  im- 
possible to  obtain  superior  examples  of  the  old  work 
even  here,  so  thoroughly  have  the  Persian,  Arme- 
nian, and  other  merchants  searched  the  country,  and, 
when  found,  exorbitant  prices  are  asked  and  paid. 


WEALTH    OF    THE    TURCOMAN  413 

Almost  the  entire  wealth  and  resources  of  the 
Turcomans  are  comprised  in  their  herds  and 
flocks,  as  they  disdain  to  cultivate  the  soil.  They 
raise  few  cattle,  but  have  immense  herds  of  sheep 
and  goats.  It  is  upon  their  sheep  that  they  rely 
mainly  for  their  food  and  the  material  for  their 
clothing.  They  usually  wear  a  coat  or  cloak, 
called  a  khalat,  made  from  the  skin  of  that  animal, 
and  a  huge  cap  made  of  the  pelt  of  the  same  animal. 

They  have,  besides,  great  numbers  of  camels. 
This  is  the  true  home  of  that  patient  and  useful 
creature,  and  I  cannot  remember  ever  havinor 
seen  so  many  in  any  country.  It  is  his  constant 
companion,  using  it  to  carry  his  burdens,  even 
hitchino-  it  to  his  rude  cart,  or  to  his  still  ruder 
plough,  should  he  so  far  forget  the  traditions  of 
his  ancestors  as  to  use  so  plebeian  an  implement. 

The  Turcoman  possesses,  also,  a  famous  breed 
of  horses,  which,  although  not  desirable  in  appear- 
ance, are  noted  for  their  powers  of  endurance, 
being  capable  of  performing  long  and  trying 
journeys.  It  is  reported  that  they  can  go  from 
fifty  to  sixty  miles  for  days  in  succession,  and  that 
also  with  but  little  food.  They  are  long  of  back, 
neck,  and  limb,  and  have  a  scant  coat  of  fine 
hair,  but  their  highly  useful  qualities  compensate 
for  their  lack  of  beauty. 

There  are  few,  if  an\-,  common  roads  for  vehicles 


414 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


In  Turcomania  ;  but  cutting  in  various  directions 
through  the  treeless  and  ahiiost  trackless  waste 
are   camel   trails,  on  which,  under  a  cloudless   sky 


VIEW    ACROSS    THE    DESERT    OF    TURCOMANIA,    LOOKING    TOWARD    THE 
PERSIAN    MOUNTAINS 


and  over  burning  sands,  can  be  seen  long  caravans 
of  camels  plodding  their  drowsy,  solemn  way  to  dis- 
tant lands  beyond,  with  which  they  hold  a  rude, 
though  not  unimportant,  commerce. 


ALONG    THE    BORDER    OF    PERSIA         415 

From  Kizyl-Arvat,  for  more  than  300  miles,  the 
railway  line  closely  hugs  the  base  of  the  mountain 
range  that  forms  the  boundary  line  between  Tur- 


TURCOMAX    VIl.I.Awi:    <_)N     illL    ul'l.N    ri.Al.N.^,    );i.r\VLi:.\    CEuK-li.Ii.    AM; 

ASKABAD 


comania  and  Persia,  and  the  train  is  therefore  sel- 
dom more  than  a  few  miles  from  the  border  of  the 
latter  country.  This  may,  perhaps,  have  a  signifi- 
cance in  the  future  relations  of  these  two  nations. 


4i6 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Askabad,  located  about  midway  between  Kras- 
novodsk  and  j\Ierv,  is  a  beautiful  town  of  consid- 
erable size,  having-  something  like  25,000  or  30,000 
inhabitants.  It  has  been  entirely  built  up  since 
Russia  first  occupied  this  country,  scarcely  twelve 


STATION    AT    ASKABAD,    ON    TRANS-CASPIAN    RAILWAY 


years  ago  ;  its  population  is  composed  almost 
wholly  of  Russians,  mostly  army  officials,  soldiers, 
and  the  large  class  of  industrious  people  who  fol- 
low in  the  wake  of  the  army,  and  who  perma- 
nently identify  themselves  with    the   interests  and 


CITY    OF    ASKABAD 


417 


fortunes  of  the  new  countries  acquired.  Like  all 
new  Russian  towns  in  these  regions,  it  has  wide, 
well-paved  streets,  and  beautiful  avenues  of  trees, 
with  a  stream  of  runninof  water  on  either  side  of 


STATION'    OF    Djr-Djr-KLY,    ON    THE   TRANS-CASPIAN    RAILWAY 

the  streets.  Having  an  abundance  of  water,  sup- 
plied by  a  stream  descending  from  the  adjacent 
mountains,  most  of  which  is  used  for  irrigation, 
Askabad   has   become    the    centre    of  a  larcre  and 

O 

highly  productive  agricultural  region. 
27 


4i8 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


Fruits  of  all  kinds  crrow  here  in  the  (greatest 
profusion,  grapes  especially  being-  of  the  most 
extraordinary  size  and  quality.  Besides  all  the 
cereals  that  grow  and  develop  here,  cotton  is  be- 


SCEXE   NEAR    ASKABAD 


ing  grown  in  considerable  quantities.  The  quality 
is  fairly  good,  and  the  yield  very  heavy  ;  both,  no 
doubt,  being  capable  of  much  improvement  in  the 
future,  as  at  present  it  is  being  grown  by  the  un- 


CULTIVATION   OF    COTTON  421 

skilled  labor  of  the  Turcoman  and  the  immigrant 
Russian,  who  have  as  yet  but  little  knowledge  of 
this  peculiar  plant. 

The  city  is  located  some  miles  away  from  the 
old  Teke  town,  which  was  once  of  great  impor- 
tance, being  formerly  one  of  many  defences  estab- 
lished by  the  Tartars  against  Russian  encroach- 
ment. 


XX 


Location  of  towns  on  Russian  railways — Her  occupation  of  new 
countries — Dushak,  the  soutliern  point  of  the  road — Irrigation 
of  oasis  of  Merv — New  city  of  Merv — Railway  from  Alerv  to 
Herat — Confidence  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia — Growth  of  cot- 
ton— The  ancient  city  of  Merv — Extraordinary  mounds — Home 
of  Kuldja  Khan — Curious  custom  of  naming  women — Fertility 
of  the  oasis  of  Merv — Pasture  land  and  jungles — Wild  animals 
— In  the  old  city  of  Merv — Its  extent  and  history — Complete 
desolation — Home  of  wild  beasts — -Former  population — 
Founded  by  Alexander  the  Great — Its  destruction. 

It  is  in  order  here  to  refer  to  a  practice  of  the 
government  in  locating  the  stations  of  its  railways, 
so  general  as  to  indicate  a  fixed  policy.  In  ex- 
tending its  railway  lines  through  the  countries  it 
occupies,  the  stations  of  the  road  are  invariably 
located  at  some  distance,  and  often  many  miles, 
away  from  the  native  towns  in  the  region  through 
which  they  pass.  Thus  the  new,  or  railway,  town 
of  Merv  is  twenty-five  miles  from  the  old  city  of 
that  name  ;  the  new,  or  Russian,  Bokhara  is  twelve 
miles  from  the  old  city  ;  and  the  station  of  new 
Samarkand  from  four  to  five  miles  away  from  the 
ancient  city.  In  occupying  old  countries,  it  seems 
to  be  the  purpose  of  the  government  to  soften  the 


THE    OASIS    OF    MERV  425 

collision  of  the  new  with  the  older  order  of  things, 
relying  on  the  truly  Oriental  process  of  slow 
absorption,  rather  than  the  more  modern  one  of 
pressure  and  compulsion. 

It  seems  to  be  her  policy  to  allow  the  older  com- 
munities and  cities  the  fullest  possible  freedom  to 
enjoy  and  exercise  their  ancient  rights,  customs, 
and  habits ;  and  to  this  end  she  seeks  to  avoid 
those  violent  shocks,  changes,  and  disturbances 
that  must  inevitably  result  from  bringing  into  an 
unduly  near  position  the  influences  of  a  new  and 
too  often  incongruous  civilization.  By  this  pre- 
caution the  two  will  ultimately,  insensibly,  and 
peacefully  merge,  the  one  by  gradual  decline,  and 
the  other  through  a  steady  advance. 

At  Dushak,  the  road  reaches  its  extreme  south- 
ern point,  whence  it  takes  a  northeastern  course  to 
Merv.  The  intermediate  country  is  well  culti- 
vated, a  condition  rendered  possible  by  the  waters 
of  the  Tedjen  River,  flowing  northward,  and  the 
irrigating  Alikhanof  Canal,  that  taps  the  Murgab 
River  at  some  distance  above  Merv. 

This  town  has  grown  with  great  rapidity  the 
past  few  years,  having  now  from  15,000  to  20,000 
inhabitants.  Being  most  favorably  located  for 
strategic  and  commercial  purposes,  it  is  destined 
to  some  day  become  a  city  of  much  importance. 

From  here  a  railway  is  being  built  southward 


426 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


and  up  the  Miirgab  River,  and  is  already  com- 
pleted almost  to  the  very  Afghan  border.  To  in- 
sure its  early  completion,  the  government,  for  some 
reason,  has  recently  been  pushing  it  with  much 
vigor,  working  upon  it  both  night  and  day.      It  is 


HOME   OF   KULDJA   KHAN 


also  hinted  that  Russia  is  quietly,  though  rapidly, 
extending  the  line  to  Herat,  the  key  to  Northern 
Afghanistan. 

I  was  received  with  great  courtesy  by  the  mili- 
tary agent  here,  through  whose  kindness  I  was 
enabled   to   see   the  various   objects  in   and   about 


*Lv>.J;»> 


^j||^L/ir"v^j«» 


^,.F.i^.:^L.^:?r«^ 


•4f?^ 


RUSSIAN  CONFIDENCE  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA     431 

the  city.  Like  all  the  new  Russian  towns,  the  city 
is  laid  out  with  great  regularity,  the  streets  run- 
ning at  rieht  angles  and  frinofed  on  both  sides  with 
rows  of  beautiful  trees.  The  private  residences 
are  elegant,  with  all  the  modern  improvements, 
and  almost  always  located  in  the  middle  of  a  great 
square,  forming  a  splendid  park.  A  handsome 
boulevard  of  several  miles  in  length,  and  orna- 
mented by  a  double  row  of  trees  on  either  side, 
extends  through  the  city.  Owing  to  the  richness 
of  the  soil,  bright  sunshine,  and  abundance  of 
water  for  irrigation,  the  creation  of  a  beautiful 
park  or  delightful  boulevard  in  this  genial  climate 
is  the  work  of  only  a  few  years. 

From  the  extent  and  solidity  of  the  improve- 
ments seen  everywhere,  the  Russian  has  evidently 
entered  this  country  with  great  confidence,  and  to 
stay. 

Unlike  some  nations,  she  does  not  send  to  her 
newly  acquired  possessions  a  favored  class  only, 
to  enjoy  the  emoluments  of  office  or  the  dignity 
of  administering  their  civil  and  political  affairs  ; 
but,  regarding  each  new  possession  as  the  prop- 
erty of  the  whole  nation,  she  hastens  to  people  it 
with  her  industrial  classes,  who  engage  in  every 
branch  of  trade  and  aQfriculture. 

In  Merv,  as  in  all  new  towns  in  this  country, 
the  Russian  element  vastly  predominates.     There 


432  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

are  large  and  excellently  appointed  barracks  here, 
and  there  are  many  soldiers,  it  being  an  important 
military  centre. 

Cotton  is  extensively  grown  in  this  oasis,  as  also 
in  Bokhara,  and  in  the  district  of  Ferghan  further 
eastward.  In  all  of  these  provinces,  such  reports 
are  in  circulation  regarding  the  marvellous  yield 
secured  as  to  at  least  indicate  that  this  is  to  be- 
come an  industry  of  the  highest  importance  in 
Central  Asia. 

As  I  have  stated,  the  ancient  city  of  Merv — 
or,  rather,  what  was  once  the  ancient  city,  as  it  is 
now  merely  a  mass  of  crumbling  ruins — is  located 
some  twenty-five  miles  from  the  new  town  built  on 
the  railway  line.  Although  there  is  a  station  at 
Bairom-Ali,  not  far  from  the  ruins,  I  preferred  to 
drive  thither  over  a  tolerable  road,  since  it  afforded 
me  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  habits  of  the 
natives,  and  to  study  at  short  range  the  more  im- 
portant features  of  the  country. 

About  midway  there  looms  up  a  series  of  won- 
derful mounds,  the  extraordinary  size  of  which, 
suggesting  an  incredible  amount  of  labor  to  create, 
entitles  them  to  be  classed  amono-  the  greatest  of 
curiosities.  At  a  distance  they  look  like  a  low 
range  of  mountains,  or,  rather,  very  high  hills. 
They  are  right  in  the  centre  of  a  great  level  plain. 
My    inquiries    as    to     their    origin    and    purpose 


THE   ANCIENT    CITY    OF    MERV 


435 


elicited  no  other  information  than  that  they  were 
probably  in  some  way  related  to  Alexander's  con- 
quest   and    occupation    of    this    country.       Their 


IN    THE    OLD    CITY    OF    MERV 


obvious  military    character  and  evident    antiquity 
lend  some  support  to  this  theor)-. 

A  few  miles  further  on,  delightfully  nestled  in  a 
beautiful   Qrrove,  is  a  handsome  white  structure  of 


436  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

the  purest  Oriental  type.  It  is  said  to  be  the  pal- 
ace of  the  princess  by  whose  treaty  the  Russians 
came  into  possession  of  this  country,  some  ten  or 
twelve  years  ago.  She  is  the  widow  of  the  last 
reigning  Khan  of  Turcomania,  and  is  called  by 
the  Tartars  Kuldja  Khan,  which  literally  means 
the  "  flower  of  the  khan." 

These  people  have  a  singular  though  truly 
chivalrous  custom  of  naming  their  women,  the 
name  being  usually  that  of  a  flower,  its  color,  or 
some  feature  of  it. 

Alonof  the  whole  route  I  found  the  land  to  be  of 
surpassing  fertility,  and  the  country  literally  grid- 
ironed  by  canals  and  ditches  for  the  purpose  of 
irrigation.  Being  the  property  of  the  Tartars, 
who  do  not  cultivate  the  soil,  depending  mainly 
on  pasturage,  it  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of 
grass,  which  at  times,  uniting  with  a  dense  mass 
of  shrubbery,  forms  throughout  great  areas  an  im- 
penetrable jungle. 

Wild  animals,  therefore,  of  almost  every  variety, 
even  to  the  tiger,  find  here  a  secure  home.  Our 
driver  informed  us  that  only  a  day  or  two  before, 
some  soldiers  killed  a  fine  specimen  of  this  animal 
that  was  found  prowling  uncomfortably  near  their 
quarters. 

We  enter  the  old  town  through  an  immense  arch- 
way in  the  middle  of  a  long,  massive,  though  half- 


AMONG   THE    RUINS 


439 


decayed  wall,  that  formed  one  of  the  many  ram- 
parts of  this  once  mighty  city.  It  baffles  the  im- 
agination to  conceive,  or  the  tongue  to  describe, 
the  wide  prospect  of  ruin  and  desolation  that 
spreads  before  the  view.  Extending  in  all  direc- 
tions as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  there  is  nothing 


DISTANT    VIEW    OF    MERV 


but  great  heaps  of  rubbish,  crumbling  walls  and 
buildings,  broken  arches,  with  here  and  there  the 
half-preserved  ruins  of  some  majestic  edifice  tow- 
ering over  all,  and  standing  like  a  solemn,  solitary 
sentinel  to  guard  the  sad  remains  of  former  splen- 
dor and  oreatness. 


440  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


RUINED    MOSQUE   OF   THE   SULTAN    SANJARE 


Not  a  single  human  creature  now  dwells  in  this 
silent  city  ;  the  ghoulish  hyena  and  noisy  jackal 
find  their  lair  in  what  was  once  the  glory  and  home 


EXTENT    OF    OLD    CITY  443 

of  nearly  2,000,000  people.  The  guide,  observ- 
ing our  astonishment,  requested  us  to  turn  our 
glass  toward  an  object  faintly  visible  in  the  dis- 
tant horizon.  "  That,"  said  he,  "  is  the  mosque 
of  the  Sultan  Sanjare  ;  it  is  nearly  six  miles  away, 
and  directly  in  the  centre  of  the  ruined  city." 

The  ruins  of  many  mosques,  palaces,  and  other 
buildings,  some  yet  rising  to  the  height  of  several 
hundred  feet,  are  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  en- 
able one  to  form  some  idea  of  what  must  have 
been  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  these  stately 
structures.  Many  streets  are  sufficiently  intact 
to  indicate  the  former  bustle,  throng,  and  traffic 
of  its  great  thoroughfares. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  fix  with  any  degree 
of  precision  the  limits  of  the  ancient  city.  It  is, 
however,  evident  that  it  must  at  some  time  have 
covered  a  space  of  from  thirty  to  forty  miles  in 
circumference,  or  an  area  quite  as  great  as  that  of 
New  York  or  Paris. 

Its  greatest  former  population  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  1,500,000  to  2,000,000.  The  extraor- 
dinary territory  covered  may  be  somewhat  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  in  past  time  it  was 
the  custom — one  that  has,  in  a  large  measure,  sur- 
vived in  Oriental  countries — for  the  better  classes 
to  surround  their  houses  with  large  gardens  and 
parks,  enclosed  within  the  walls  of  the  city. 


444 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


In  its  palmy  days  it  was  called  "  El-Sherif,  the 
Noble,"  and  even  yet  the  natives  cherish  its  mem- 
ory, fondly  calling  it  "  Merv,  the  king  of  the 
world." 

It    might    be    added  that    the   buildings,   being 


OLD   WALLS   AROUND   ANCIENT   CITY   OF   MERV 


mainly  constructed  of  brick,  not  of  a  very  firm 
consistency,  were  not  well  calculated  to  resist 
either  the  destructive  efforts  of  man  or  the  cor- 
roding effects  of  time. 

Alexander  the  Great  is  accredited  with  having 
founded    the   ancient    city   of   Merv,   which,    after 


FINAL    DESTRUCTION    OF    MERV         447 

many  vicissitudes  through  good  and  ill  fortune,  was 
at  last  almost  destroyed  in  more  modern  times  by 
Zinehiz  Khan,  on  which  occasion  it  is  said  over 
700,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  slaughtered. 
Tamerlane  infused  into  it  some  spirit  of  revival, 
when  it  again  fell  into  decline  and  finally  received 
its  "coup  de  grace"  at  the  hands  of  an  Usbeg 
conqueror,  who  cut  the  canals  of  the  upper  Murgab 
that  irrigated  the  oasis  and  watered  the  city,  with 
a  result  as  immediate  and  disastrous  as  would  fol- 
low the  severing^  of  the  main  arterv  of  the  human 
body. 


XXI 

At  Bairom-Ali — Imperial  palace — From  fertile  fields  to  burning- 
sands— March  of  Alexander  through  the  desert — From  sterile 
sands  to  fruitful  fields — The  Amu-Daria  River — Its  length,  etc. 
— Quantity  of  water  in  the  Amu-Daria — Great  railway  bridge 
being  erected  over  the  Amu-Daria — Possible  diversion  of  the 
course  of  this  great  river — The  slow  and  vast  operations  of 
nature — Immense  deposits  of  this  great  river — Karakul — Rear- 
ing of  the  sheep  here  known  as  Persian  lamb. 

At  Bairom-Ali — named  after  the  last  defender 
of  Merv — we  were  received  with  rare  grace  and 
hospitality,  and  were  sumptuously  entertained  by 
Colonel  de  Kaschtalinsky,  the  imperial  agent  there, 
who  is  directing  the  important  work  in  progress 
at  that  place.  Although  a  small  station  only,  for 
some  reason  it  has  been  selected  as  the  site  of 
a  superb  palace  for  the  future  use  of  the  Czar, 
which  is  rapidly  approaching  completion.  Exten- 
sive gardens  and  parks  are  being  elaborately  laid 
out  around  the  palace,  that  will  be  of  surpassing 
beauty  when  completed. 

After  leaving  Bairom-Ali,  the  train  for  several 
hours  passes  though  fertile  and  highly  cultivated 
fields,  when  it  suddenly  plunges  into  a  desert  that 


ACROSS   THE    BURNING   DESERT 


451 


extends  nearly  150  miles.  The  scene  is  one  of 
the  wildest  and  most  oppressive  desolation.  It  is 
nothing  but  an   immense  sea  of  the  purest  sand, 


STATION   AT   BAIROM-ALI   ON  TRANS-CASPIAN   RAILWAY,  ON   THE   ROAD    TO 

BOKHARA 


that  by  the  action  of  the  wind  is  heaped  into  great 
ridges  and  dunes  fully  20  to  50  feet  high.  Wave 
upon  wave  and  billow  upon  billow  seemed  to  roll 
in  this  vast  ocean  of  sand,  in  towering  heights,  one 


45^ 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


above  the  other,  from  the  summits  of  which  great 
clouds  were  driven  like  the  spray  from  the  crest  of 
a  wave   in   a  stormy  sea.      Every  now  and   again 


BUNDLES     OF     FAGOTS    USED     AS     A     SAND    BARRIER     TO     PROTECT    THE 
RAILWAY    AGAINST    THE    DRIFTING    SAND 


fierce  whirls  and  gusts  of  sand  swept  in  blinding 
drifts  over  the  train,  which,  with  the  stifling  heat, 
had  a  most  suffocatino-  effect. 

Scarcely  a  vestige  of  vegetation  exists  through 


SUDDEN   TRANSFORMATION 


453 


.this  long  and  dreary  waste  ;  the  flight  of  a  sohtary 
bird  or  the  sight  of  a  lone  shrub  in  the  distance 
only  emphasized  the  horrible  desolation.    The  rail- 


MARKET    SCENE   IN    THE    TOWN    OF    AMT-DARIA,    ON    THE    BANKS    OF    THE 
AMU-DARIA    RIVER 


way  has  in  many  places  barriers  and  guards  against 
the  drifting  sand,  such  as  are  used  in  winter  in 
other  countries  against  drifting  snow. 

It  was  right  through   these   burning   sands   that 


454  SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

the  intrepid  Macedonian  led  his  Grecian  hosts  on 
his  march  from  Merv  to  Samarkand  and  the  Trans- 
Oxian  country.  It  is  small  wonder  that  his  faithful 
and  obedient  soldiers,  after  following  him  for  years 
in  his  career  of  conquest  over  Arabian  and  Persian 
deserts,  Bactrian  sands  and  Himalayan  snows, 
should  at  last,  in  the  fertile  valleys  of  Northern 
India,  spontaneously  throw  down  their  arms  and 
stubbornly  refuse  to  follow  their  insatiable  leader 
further.  Perhaps  this  it  was  that  caused  the  mon- 
arch to  weep,  and  not,  as  the  sentimental  historian 
puts  it,  for  "  more  worlds  to  conquer,"  as  he  had 
just  entered  upon  the  verge  of  the  greatest  world 
of  all. 

The  magician's  art  can  scarcely  produce  an  effect 
more  startling  than  that  which  followed  our  sudden 
transition  from  the  desert,  with  its  torrid  heat  and 
blinding  sands,  to  the  cool  shady  groves,  the  lovely 
gardens  and  smiling  landscapes  in  the  charming 
valley  of  the  Amu-Daria.  So  abrupt  was  the 
change  that  it  seemed  the  work  of  enchantment. 

Amu-Daria,  the  town  located  on  the  banks  of  the 
great  river  of  that  name,  is  purely  the  product  of 
the  railway,  and,  like  all  Russian  towns  in  this  land 
of  exuberant  vegetation,  the  territory  it  covers  is 
quite  disproportionate  to  its  population.  Although 
containing  over  20,000  inhabitants  and  being  the 
centre   of  an  extensive  trade,  it   is  more  an  assem- 


THE    OXUS    OR   AMU-DARIA    RIVER      455 

blage  of  lovely  gardens,  groves,  and  parks  than  a 
city.  The  mighty  river  here,  known  to  the  Greeks 
as  the  Oxus  and  so  celebrated  in  their  annals,  de- 
serves, on  account  of  its  great  size  and  many  pe- 
culiarities, especial  mention. 


ON  THE  aml'-haria,   ai;o\'f,  tkp:  < tty  ov   thai'  na>!K 

It  has  its  source  in  the  lofty  mountains  of 
Afghanistan  and  the  Hindu  Kush,  flowing  north- 
ward through  a  distance  of  1,200  to  1,500  miles 
into  the  Aral  Sea,  and  therefore  has  no  outlet  to 
the  ocean.  Although  its  length  is  but  little 
greater   than   that   of   the   Danube,  it   is  said  that 


456  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

its  volume  of  water  is  three  times  as  ereat.  Its 
width  at  the  point  where  the  railway  crosses  it  is 
quite  equal  to  the  average  of  the  Mississippi  River 
between  Memphis  and  \"icksburg.  The  extraor- 
dinar\'  quantity  of  water  that  flows  in  a  river  of  a 
length  so  moderate  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  it  has  its  oricrin  in  the  hiorhest  mountain  ran^e 
in  the  world,  on  whose  summit  the  heavily  saturated 
air  from  the  Indian  Ocean  pours  its  might}^  floods, 
which  descend  in  the  Amu-Daria  to  the  north,  and 
in  the  Indus  and  Ganofes  southward. 

The  railwav  bridofe  is  over  four  versts,  or  nearlv 
three  miles,  in  length.  It  is  a  modern  structure 
built  on  piles  driven  into  the  loose  and  shifting  bed 
of  the  river.  The  government  is  active!)'  pre- 
paring to  build  an  immense  iron  structure,  which 
is  estimated  to  cost  about  18,000,000  rubles,  or 
over  $9,000,000. 

As  the  bed  of  the  river  is  only  about  twenty-five 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country, 
and  as  its  channel  lies  scarcely  ten  miles  from  the 
edge  where  the  descent  into  Turcomania  sharply 
begins,  the  diversion  of  this  river  into  that  country 
is  regarded  by  engineers  as  a  feasible  enterprise. 
The  cutting  of  a  canal  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet 
deep,  and  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  long,  would  be 
sufficient  to  form  an  initial  channel  through  which, 
in  the  loose  alluvial  soil  and  sands,  the  river  might 


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THE    AMU-DARIA 


459 


ultimately  cut  its  way  and   return  again   to   its  an- 
cient course  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 

In  this  connection,  as   illustrating   the   slow  pro- 
cesses    of     nature    when    on    a    colossal     scale,    I 


STREET    IN    AMU-DARIA 


would  say  that  it  is  estimated  that  it  would  require 
over  twenty-five  years  for  the  waters  of  this  river 
to  reach  the  Caspian  Sea  if  its  full  volume  were 
suddenly  turned   in   that  direction,  so  great  would 


460 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


be  the  requirements  to  supply  the  loss  by  evapora- 
tion, the  needs  of  the  thirst}"  soil,  and  to  fill  the 
man)- depressions  in  the  vast  intermediate  country. 


RAILWAY    STATION    AT    THE   NEW,    OR    RUSSIAN,    TOWN    OF    BOKHARA, 
THE    OLD    CITY    BEING   TWELVE    MILES    FROM    THE    RAILWAY 


The  river  at  the  point  where  the  railway  crosses 
it  is  divided  into  two  channels  at  low  water,  each 
a  little  over  a  mile  in  wicith.  At  its  full  stage, 
the     river     extends     for    three    miles    from    shore 


VAST    CHANGES  461 

to  shore.  The  average  vohime  of  water  is  esti- 
mated at  about  4,000  cubic  meters  per  second,  and 
it  is  said  to  contain  nearly  two  per  cent,  of  earthy 
matter,  mainly  suspended  clay. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  this  mighty  river, 
since  the  time  Alexander  floated  his  army  across 
it  on  inflated  goat  skins,  has  carried  northward 
nearly  2,000  cubic  miles  of  solid  matter,  enough 
to  cover  the  whole  State  of  Ohio  to  a  depth  of 
over  200  feet,  and  a  quantity  quite  equal  to  the 
cubic  contents  of  the  Alleghanies  in  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania. 

The  operation  of  causes  so  vast  is  not  without 
its  adequate  effects,  for  the  Aral  Sea  is  already 
200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Caspian,  and  in 
future  may  be  so  lifted  that  its  waters  will  over- 
flow and  find  their  way  again  to  that  sea.  The 
eye  of  imagination  may  even  discern  that  in  future 
eons  the  Caspian  itself,  and  even  the  great  basin 
of  which  it  is  the  centre,  may  yet  be  filled  by  the 
washings  of  the  mountains  a  thousand  miles  away. 
The  contemplation  of  cosmic  changes  so  vast, 
wrought  by  the  erosions  of  time,  suggesting  the 
ultimate  removal  of  the  earth's  inequalities, 
teaches  anew  the  lesson  that  all  things  seem  to  be" 
travelling  toward  a  final,  and  perhaps  an  eternal, 
equilibrium. 

After     leaving     Amu-Daria,     the     first     station 


462 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


reached  is  Karakul,  which,  although  a  small  town, 
deserves  especial  mention,  as  from  here  and  the 
surrounding  region  comes  most  of  what  is  known 
and    so    properly  prized   by   the   American   ladies 


^.^ff^  ipilfi  7^  0 

■  ^^•"r'''^     " 

-l^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

NEW  PALACE  BEING  BUILT  BY  RUSSIA  FOR   THE   AMEER    OF   BOKHARA,  NEAR 
THE    STATION    IN    THE    NEW,    OR    RUSSIAN,    TOWN    OF    THAT    NAME 


as  i\strakhan,  or  Persian  lamb.  The  term  Astra- 
khan is  a  pure  misnomer,  since  none  of  these 
animals  are  reared  in  that  locality.  The  name 
Astrakhan  as  applied  to  this  commodity  no  doubt 


AT    THE    CITY    OF    KARAKUL 


463 


grew  out  of  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  favorable 
commercial  position  of  that  city  at  the  head  of  the 
Caspian   Sea,  it  was  through  Astrakhan   that  this 


OLD    MOSOUE    SAID    TO    HAVE    BEEN    BUILT    BY   TAMERLANE 


highly  prized  article  of  dress  was  first  introduced 
into  the  West. 

It  is  obtained  from  a  peculiar  variety  of  sheep. 
It  is  an  under-sized  and  scraggy  animal,  in  striking- 
contrast  with   the   large,  plump,  and  well-rounded 


464 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


kind  that  yields  the  excellent  mutton  of  Bokhara. 
They  are  almost  without  exception  black,  and  it  is 
about  as  rare  to  find  a  white  or  light  one  in  the 
flock  as  is  the  traditional  black  sheep  in  the  com- 


;»»*»»■»», ,j,,j,,. 


iiniiiiiHiiiHiiiitiiiii ,  1^ 


SUMMER    PALACE    OF   THE    AMEER    OF    BOKHARA,    BETWEEN   THE    NEW    AND 
OLD    CITIES    OF    THAT    NAME 


men  variety.  Its  wool,  instead  of  being  long  and 
straight  of  fibre,  grows  in  short,  crisp  curls  close  to 
the  body,  and  is  of  exceptionally  fine  texture. 
The  quality  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  age 


THE    KARAKUL  465 

at  which  the  animal  is  killed — the  young-er  it  is, 
the  hiofher  the  Lfrade. 

The  very  highest  quality  is  produced  by  a  most 
singular  practice.  As  soon  as  the  lamb  is  able  to 
stand  on  its  legs,  its  little  body  is  tightly  sewn  up 
in  a  cloth  envelope,  in  which  it  is  permitted  to  run 
about  for  four  or  five  days,  when  it  is  killed.  The 
purpose  of  this  seems  to  be  threefold — to  preserve 
the  exquisite  lustre  and  texture  of  its  baby  wool, 
to  protect  it  against  being  soiled,  and  to  add  to 
the  length  of  the  fibre  b)'  a  few  da)'s'  growth,  as 
well  as  more  firmly  fixing  the  curl. 

It  is  called  here,  in  the  East,  Karakul,  taking  its 
name  from  the  town  and  region  wh^_  e  it  is  so  exten- 
sively produced.  It  is  not  valued  in  the  West 
only,  but  throughout  Central  Asia  is  held  in  quite 
as  high  esteem,  every  one  whose  means  will  bring 
it  within  their  reach  using  it  in  some  form.  As 
a  sort  of  guide  to  its  value,  I  would  say  that  the 
skins  of  the  best  quality  sell  where  it  is  grown  at 

$4  to  $8  apiece. 

30 


XXII 

Bokhara— Courtesy  of  Russian  officials— The  Ameer  of  Bokhara — 
Area  and  population  of  Bokhara — Its  destruction  by  the  Tar- 
tars— The  ruling  race— The  Usbegs  inferior  to  the  Turcomans 
— Mosques  and  colleges — The  mosque  of  Tamerlane  in  the 
Reo-histan — Inferior  to  the  ruins  of  Samarkand — Palace  of  the 
Ameer  of  Bokhara — Citadel  of  Alp-Arslan— Bazaars  in  Bokhara 
— Buildings,  etc. — Customs,  police  regulations,  etc. — Vices  and 
virtues  of  the  Bokharians — Temperance  among  the  inhabitants 
— An  agreeable  contrast — Introduction  of  opium  into  Central 
Asia — An  instructive  incident.  « 

On  my  arrival  at  the  new  city  of  Bokhara  I  was 
met  by  the  military  agent  there,  who  at  once  as- 
signed us  a  gighiti,  or  escort,  to  the  old  city,  twelve 
miles  away.  Bokhara,  while  nominally  an  inde- 
pendent khanate,  is  in  reality  under  Russian  con- 
trol, the  Ameer  being  scarcely  more  than  a  vassal 
of  the  Czar.  The  government  has  but  few  sol- 
diers in  this  province,  and  seems  to  studiously 
avoid  any  display  of  authority  or  sovereignty, 
abstaining  from  all  acts  that  might  be  interpreted 
as  pressing  or  coercive. 

It  moreover  in  nowise  interferes  with  the  habits 
and  customs  of  the  people.  Steady  and  silent 
absorption  is  relied  upon  to  do  the  work  of  assimi- 


THE    AMEER    OF    BOKHARA 


TOWER    FORMERLY    USED    TO    EXECUTE    CRIMINALS     BY    THROWING    THEM 
FROM    THE    TOP 


THE    AMEER    OF    BOKHARA 


471 


lation.  No  doubt  to  ingratiate  themselves  into 
the  graces  of  the  present  ruler,  the  Russians  are 
building  a  splendid  palace  for  his  use  at  New  Bok- 
hara, near  the  railway  station.      The  Ameer  seems 


REGHISTAN,    OR    MARKET-PLACE,    IN    BOKHARA,    NEAR    THE    OLD    CITADEL 


to  submit  with  an  amiable  docility  to  the  new 
powers-that-be,  and  it  is  said  that  he  is  never  so 
well  pleased  as  when  he  is  rigged  out  in  the  full 
dress  and  trappings  of  a  Russian  general. 


472 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


The  province  of  Bokhara  contains  over  100,000 
square  miles,  and  about  5,000,000  people.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  on  the  globe,  and  is  irri- 
gated almost  throughout.  The  Zerafshan  River, 
a  tributary   of    the    Amu-Daria,    is   diverted    near 


OLD    MOSQUE,    COVERED    WITH    VARIEGATED    TILES 


Samarkand,  and  its  waters  carried  in  large  canals 
to  the  city  of  Bokhara,  nearly  200  miles,  irrigating 
in  the  meanwhile  the  adjacent  lands  through 
Avhich  they  pass.  Excepting  the  Nile  valley,  in 
no  country,  perhaps,  are  the  supreme  conditions 
of  agriculture  so  completely  under  the  control   of 


VEGETABLE    PRODUCTIONS 


475 


man,  or  are  nature's  choicest  gifts  through  the  soil 
so  easily  obtainable. 

Veeetables   and   fruits    ofrow    here    in   the  most 
surprising  profusion  and  abundance.      Grapes  of  a 


A    GRAVEYARD    IN    THE    CITY    OF    BOKHARA 


size  and  quality  nowhere  surpassed,  or  scarcely 
equalled,  sell  here  at  less  than  a  cent  per  po'und. 
Rich  pasturage  sustains  countless  herds  of  sheep 
that  yield  meats  of  the  highest  quality. 


476  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

The  old  cit)'  of  Bokhara  is  one  of  the  most 
peculiar,  and  even  unique,  in  the  world.  It  con- 
tains about  150,000  inhabitants,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  massive  wall,  in  which  there  are  twelve  g'ates 
that  enter  the  city.  It  is  a  very  ancient  city,  and, 
like  Merv,  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Tartar 
invader,  and  was  burned  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury by  Zinghiz  Khan.  The  rulin(T  race  are  the 
Usbeg  Tartars.  They  are  tillers  of  the  soil,  and 
live  largel)'  in  cities.  Reflecting-  in  many  ways 
the  enervating-  influence  of  a  luxurious  life,  they 
are  physically  far  inferior  to  their  nomadic  neigh- 
bor, the  Turcoman. 

Excepting  Mecca,  Bokhara  is,  perhaps,  t^ie  cen- 
tre of  the  purest  Moslem  faith  in  the  Mohamme- 
dan world.  There  are  about  300  mosques  in  the 
city,  and  in  addition  about  thirty  Medressehs,  or 
colleges,  to  educate  the  faithful.  Some  of  the 
mosques  are  models  of  beauty,  especially  that 
built  by  Tamerlane,  in  the  Reghistan,  or  market- 
place, in  front  of  the  palace.  Generally,  however, 
they  are  inferior,  both  in  design  and  ornamenta- 
tion, to  the  splendid  ruins  of  Samarkand. 

The  palace  of  the  Ameer  is  located  on  an  emi- 
nence near  the  western  limit  of  the  city.  Neither 
in  its  exterior  or  interior  is  it  sufficiently  striking  to 
command  especial  attention.  It,  however,  derives 
interest  from  the  fact  that  it  was  built  over  1,000 


THE    BAZAARS    OF    BOKHARA 


479 


years  ago  by  Alp-Arslan,  the  great  Persian  king 
who  so  long  and  gallantly  contested  with  the  East- 
ern Empire  of  Rome  the  mastery  of  the  East. 


THE  CITADEL  IN  BOKHARA,  SAID  TO  HAVE  BEEN  BUILT  BV  ALP-ARSLAN, 
THE  PERSIAN  KING.  IT  IS  WITHIN  THIS  CITADEL  THAT  THE  PALACE 
OF    THE   AMEER    IS    LOCATED 


Bokhara  has  large  and  important  bazaars,  but 
as  machine-made  goods  are  rapidly  supplanting 
the  more  splendid   products  of  the  hand,  they  are 


48o 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


fast  losing-  their  interest.  The  buildings  are  low, 
seldom  of  more  than  two  stories,  and  built  with 
the  flat  roof  sc»  common  in  Oriental  countries.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  and,  as  they  are  covered  in  the 


MUEZZIN    CALLING   THE   FAITHFUL    TO    PRAYER    FROM    THE   MINARET    OF 
A    MOSQUE    IN    BOKHARA 


centre  or  business  portion  of  the  town,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  easily  walk  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses  over 
a  large  part  of  the  city. 

There   are    many   strange    customs    and   regula- 


POLICE    REGULATIONS  483 

tions  here.  Every  gate  leading  into  the  town  is 
closed  at  evening  prayers,  and  no  one  is  permitted 
thereafter  to  enter  or  depart  until  after  morning 
prayers,   some   little   time   before   sunrise.      More- 


BAZAAR    IX    r.OKIIARA 


over,  at  the  same  hour  even  the  streets  are 
cleared,  and  no  one  is  allowed  to  appear  upon 
them  during  the  night.  To  enforce  this  regula- 
tion, a  policeman  is  stationed  every  few  hundred 
feet,  and,    besides,   a   special    detail   of    watchmen 


484 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


walk  over  the  roofs  of  the  houses  throughout  the 
entire  nio-ht,  beatino-  a  Hvely  tattoo  on  their  drums. 
The  effect  of  this  is  to  confine  every  citizen  to  his 
home,  and  the  streets  are  thus  absohitely  deserted. 


STREET    AND    OLD     MOSQUE    IN    THE     NEIOHIIORMOOD     OP^    THE    REGHISTAN, 
OR    MARKET-PLACE 


One  thing-  is    certain,   that  Hfe   and   property  are 
thereby  made  secure  in  this  queer  city. 

While  there  are   no  doubt  many  vices  here,  the 
city  is  justly  entitled  to  have  many  virtues  recorded 


A   TEMPERATE    PEOPLE 


487 


to  its  credit.  I  was  told  by  the  keeper  of  the 
caravansary  at  which  we  stopped,  that  theft  is 
ahiiost  unknown.  He  said  he  had  been  in  the  citv 
for  ten  years,  during  which  time  not  a  single  case 


RUINS    OF   ANCIENT    MOSQUE    NEAR    THE    REGHISTAN,    IN    BOKHARA 

had  come  to  his  notice.  As  the  Mohammedan  is 
not  only  theoretically,  but  de  facto,  an  absolute 
teetotaller,  the  use  and  sale  of  alcoholic  li(piors 
of  all   kinds,  e\en   beer  and   wine,  are   rigidh'  pro- 


488 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


hibitecl.  After  having  witnessed  the  wretched  and 
debasing  effects  of  the  unrestrained  use  of  intoxi- 
cating drinks  among  nations  laying  claim  to  a  high 
civilization,  this  splendid  example  of  sobriety  by  a 


IRRIGATING   CANALS    U\     illK    i'l.AlNs   ol'    HuKHARA,    ON    THE    RoAU    K 
SAMARKAND.       WATER    DRAWN    FROM    THE   ZERAFSHAN    RIVER 


so-called  heathen   nation  was,  to  say  the  least,  re- 
fresh in  cr. 

At  this  point  I  cannot  forbear  relating  an   inci- 
dent that  occurred  at   Merv,  bearing  directly  upon 


PROPOSED    INTRODUCTION    OF    OPIUM     491 

the  great  question  as  to  the  future  condition  of 
the  Oriental  races  when  brought  under  the  influ- 
ence and  power  of  the  Western  nations,  as  doubt- 
less they  ultimately  will  be. 

While  in  that  city,  I  was  invited  to  a  dinner 
given  by  a  Russian  high  in  authority,  at  which 
there  were  several  other  officials,  both  civil  and 
military,  as  well  as  a  number  of  resident  business 
men.  During  the  evening,  the  conversation 
turned  upon  the  material  resources  and  probable 
industrial  development  of  Russia's  Central  Asian 
possessions,  which  led  our  host  to  refer  to  an 
interesting  circumstance. 

A  year  or  so  before,  an  Englishman  with  im- 
portant business  connections,  who  was  making  a 
tour  in  that  region,  was  a  guest  at  a  dinner  given 
by  this  same  official.  The  usual  discussion  nat- 
urally arising  as  to  the  future  trade  possibilities  of 
Central  Asia,  his  guest,  he  said,  took  occasion  to 
suggest  that  it  might  be  a  profitable  business  ven- 
ture for  Russia  to  introduce  the  opium  traffic  into 
that  great  country. 

Having  in  mind,  evidently,  the  demoralizing  re- 
sults produced  by  England's  forcible  introduction 
of  opium  into  China,  the  condemnation  of  this 
proposal,  expressed  by  the  Russian  official,  was 
severe  in  the  extreme. 

I  shall  never  forget   his  look  of  scorn  and  con- 


492  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

tempt  as  he  referred  to  what  lie  caUed  so  extraor- 
dinary a  proposition,  that,  for  the  sake  of  mere 
sordid  gain,  they  shoukl  follow  the  example  set  in 


COLLEGE,    OR    MEDRESSEH,    L\    BOKHARA 

China,  and  introduce  this  baneful  drug,  with  its 
pernicious  consequences,  among  the  gentle,  indus- 
trious, and  temperate  races  under  their  care  and 
control  in  Central  Asia. 


XXIII 

Bokhara  to  Samarkand — Residence  of  Governor  of  Turkestan — His 
great  civility — Beauty  of  Samarkand — Avenues  of  acacias  and 
poplars — The  old  city  of  Samarkand — In  ruins,  but  picturesque 
— Once  a  great  capital — Splendor  under  the  Arabs  and  under 
Tamerlane — A  seat  of  learning — Architecture  in  old  city  of 
Samarkand — Colleges  in  Samarkand — Mosques,  tombs,  and 
palaces — The  Shah-Zindah — The  Tilla-Kari  and  Khanym — 
Exquisite  effect  of  tessellated  tiles — The  great  mosque  erected  by 
sister  of  Tamerlane — Similarity  of  architecture  between  Central 
Asia  and  that  of  the  Moguls  in  India — A  huge  pulpit  and 
voluminous  Koran. 

Leaving  Bokhara  in  the  evenino-,  we  arrived  at 
Samarkand  in  the  forenoon  of  the  next  day.  We 
went  direct  to  the  palace  of  the  Governor  of  Tur- 
kestan, and  were  received  with  that  polite  attention 
so  characteristic  of  all,  and  especially  of  the  higher, 
Russian  officials.  The  residence  of  the  governor 
is  a  handsome  structure,  nestled  in  the  midst  of  a 
most  beautiful  garden  and  park,  and  is  furnished 
throughout  with  the  choicest  products  of  Eastern 
art. 

On  making  known  our  wishes  we  were  promptly 
assigned  an  escort,  whose  dut)-  it  was  to  constantly 
attend  us  in   and   about   the   citv   durinof   our   sta\'. 


494 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


We  were  also  informed  that  the  miHtary  agent 
would  be  ready  to  respond  to  our  wishes.  Al- 
though Tashkent,  in  virtue  of  its  being  nearer  the 
centre  of  Turkestan,  is  to  become  the  future  cap- 


PARK    IN    THE   CITY    OF    SAMARKAND,    IN    FRONT    OF    THE   TOMB    OF 

TAMERLANE 


ital  of  this  great  province,  for  the  present  its  affairs 
are  conducted  from  Samarkand. 

There  are,  perhaps,  few  cities  in  the  world  that 
will  at  all  compare  with  the  rare  and  peculiar  beauty 


RUSSIAN    CITY    OF   SAMARKAND 


497 


of  the  new,  or  Russian,  Samarkand.  It  presents  the 
appearance  of  having  been  literally  carved  out  of 
a  dense  forest  of  poplars  and  acacias,  many  square 


MOSQUE   NEAR    THE   REGHISTAX,    AND    BUILT    BY    TAMERLANE,    IN 
SAMARKAND 


miles  in  extent.  The  tall  trees,  whose  branches 
almost  interlace  overhead,  form  streets  of  excep- 
tional width,  and,  crossing  at  right  angles,  they 
form  hollow  squares,  in  the  centre  of  which  the 
32 


498 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


residences  and  even  business  houses  are  located. 
In  fact,  a  more  perfect  sylvan  city  would  be  hard 
to  imaofine.      Alone  both  sides   of  the  streets  are 


MOSQUE    NEAR    CENTRE    OF    CITY,   BUILT    BY    TAMERLANE,   CALLED    THE 
TILLA-KARI 


running  streams  of  pure,  clear  water,  drawn  from 
the  mountains  some  miles  away. 

Like  many  other  unfortunate  cities  whose  wealth 
and  splendor  caused  them   to  become  the  prey  of 


OLD   CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


501 


the  despoiler,  and  which,  through  centuries  of  mis- 
fortune and  ever-changing  masters,  descended  at 
last  to  a  fixed  state  of  hopeless  despair,  the  old 
city  of  Samarkand,  located  at  some  distance  from 


STREET     SCENE     IN     SAMARKAND,     SHOWING     THE     MOSQUE     OF     KHANVM, 
ERECTED  ]!Y  TAMERLANE  TO  HIS  FAVORITE  WIFE,  A  CHINESE    PRINCESS 


the  new,  is  now  scarcely  more  than  a  sues^estion 
of  its  former  Q-reatness.  Its  streets  are  narrow 
and  unclean  ;  its  houses  small  and  untidy  ;  and  the 
great   structures  that  were  once  its  pride  lie  scat- 


502  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

tered  about,  many  in  mouldering  ruins,  and  most 
of   them  in  the  last  stages  of  decay  ;  all  of  them, 


STREET    SCENE    IN    SAMARKAND 


however,   present   an   interesting   and   picturesque 
appearance. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  city  in  the  world  that  con- 
tains so  many,  or  such  a  variety  of,  splendid  ruins 
as  this.      It  was   known   to  the  ancients   as   Mara- 


THE    GREAT    TAxMERLANE  505 

canda,  and  was  used  by  Alexander  as  a  base  for  his 
military  operations  in  Sogdiana.  It  rose  to  great 
eminence  in  the  tenth  century,  and  then  fell  under 


ENTRANCE   TO    THE    >rOSQLE    SHAH-ZINDAH.        TESSELLATED    TILES,    WITH 
VARIEGATED    COLORING 

the  hand  of  that  merciless  destroyer  of  nations, 
Zinghiz  Khan.  After  the  mighty  Tamerlane  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Zagatai,  he  made  Samarkand 
his  capital,  and  by  his  efforts  it  became  a  brilliant 


5o6  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

centre  of  art,  refinement,  and  learning,  that,  under 
this  ruler  and  his  successors,  long  shone  as  the 
brightest  star  in   the  Asiatic  firmament. 

The  genius  of  Tamerlane  can  be  seen  every- 
where reflected  in  the  architecture  and  art  of  this 
city  and  the  surrounding  country.  Many  of  the 
finest  mosques  and  colleges  are  his  creation,  not- 
ably the  Tilla-Kari  and  the  Khanym,  the  latter 
erected  in  honor  of  his  favorite  wife,  who  was  a 
Chinese  princess.  Some  of  the  chief  buildings, 
wliich  are  fairl)^  well-preserved,  and  the  mosques 
whose  domes,  facades,  and  minarets  are  yet  cov- 
ered with  tessellated  tiles,  of  those  enchanting^ 
blues  and  other  colors  so  in  favor  with  the  Per- 
sian and  Saracen — arranged  in  exquisite  and  varie- 
gated patterns  and  designs — combine  to  produce 
an  indescribably  charming  effect. 

What  was  perhaps  the  largest,  and  generally  es- 
teemed one  of  the  most  beautiful,  mosques  in  the 
Mohammedan  world,  is  the  Shah-Zindah,  just  out- 
side of  the  present,  and  which  once  must  have  been 
in  the  midst  of  the  old,  city.  ,The  memorial  mosque, 
however,  built  by  Tamerlane's  sister,  when  in  its 
best  estate,  must  have  been  without  a  peer  in  the 
world's  rare  creations  of  architecture.  It  is  still 
sufficiently  well-preserved  to  enable  the  imagina- 
tion to  restore  it  in  its  wondrous  pristine  symmetry 
and  peerless  beauty. 


CENTRAL    ASIAN    ART 


509 


Indeed,  to  my  mind  there  is  but  one  building- 
in  the  world  that  can  justly  rank  as  a  rival,  and 
that  is  the  memorial  mosque  erected  in  India  by 
the  Mogul  ruler  Shah-Jehan  to  his  favorite  wife, 
the  Taj-Mahal.    To  all  who  are  familiar  wnth  the  art 


STREET  SCENE  IX  SAMARKAND.       STREET  LEADING  FROM  RAILWAY  STATION 
TO    THE    CITADEL    IN    THE   CITY 


that  developed  under  the  Tartar  dynasty  of  North- 
western India,  a  similarity  is  apparent  so  striking 
as  to  suggest  that  it  received  its  inspiration  from 
Central  Asia.  It  is  said,  in  fact,  that  the  architect 
who  designed  the  Taj-AIahal  came  from  the  latter 
countr\-.      As    it    is  a  matter   of    historv   that   the 


510 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


Tartar  ancestors  of  those  who  founded  the  Mogul 
Empire  in  India  came  originally  from  Central  Asia, 
it  is  a  reasonable  supposition  that  its  art  also  may 
have  been  transplanted  to  the  former  country. 


RUINS    OF   THE   MOSQUE   F.UILT   T,X  SISTER    OF  TAMERLANE.       ONLY  A  SMALL 
PORTION    OF    IT    REMAINS    IN    GOOD    STATE    OF    TRESERVATION 


Within  a  grove  in  front  of  this  mosque  is  an 
immense  marble  block,  supported  by  six  columns. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  block  a  large  V-shaped 
groove  is  cut,  in  which  was  formerly  placed  a  huge 


HUGE  VOLUME  OF  THE  KORAN   513 

volume  of  the  Koran,  from  which  the  officiating 
priest  read  lessons  to  the  surrounding-  multitude. 
This  great  book,  which  is  still  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  the  mosque  of  Shah-Zindah,  has  leaves 
which  seem  to  be  from  three  to  four  feet  wide  and 
four  to  five  feet  long. 

33 


XXIV 

Medressehs  or  colleges  in  Samarkand — The  tomb  of  Tamerlane — 
The  sarcophagus  of  the  great  Tartar — Interior  ornamentation — 
The  Russian  citadel — Kok-Tash,  or  throne  of  Tamerlane — The 
Shadman-Melik — Its  peculiar  construction — Excursion  in  the 
mountains — The  beauty  of  Samarkand — Reminiscences  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great — Social  customs,  etc. — Polygamy — Peculiar 
equipage. 

There  are  ten  or  a  dozen  Medressehs,  or  native 
colleges,  here,  some  of  them  accommodating-  many 
hundreds  of  students.  The  buildings  are  two 
or  three  stories  high,  enclosing  a  quadrangular 
space,  in  which  also  the  students  live,  and  thus 
they  much  resemble  the  colleges  of  English  uni- 
versities. At  one  side  there  is  Invariably  located 
a  mosque  for  the  use  of  the  college. 

The  Gur-Amir,  or  tomb  of  Tamerlane  here,  is 
worthy  of  that  mighty  conqueror.  It  is  of  the  usual 
mosque  form,  and  surmounted  by  a  high  and  ornate 
dome.  In  the  centre  of  an  octagonal-shaped  room, 
immediately  beneath  the  dome,  is  placed  the 
sarcophagus  containing  the  remains  of  this  great 
warrior.      It  is  a  huge  block  of  solid  jasper,  highly 


THE   TOMB    OF   TAMERLANE 


517 


polished  and  covered  with  Cufic  inscriptions.  On 
each  side  is  a  large  porphyry  sarcophagus,  contain- 
ing respectively  the   remains  of  his  son  and  prime 


STREET   SCENE   IN   THE   NEW,    OR   RUSSIAN,    CITY   OF   SAMARKAND 


minister.  The  whole  room,  as  well  as  the  ceiling 
of  the  dome,  is  richly  colored  and  covered  with  or- 
namental arabesque  fret-work.  Through  beauti- 
fully stained  glass  windows  the  light  is  admitted 


5i8 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


and   diffused   throufrh   the    room    in    soft,   delicate 


tints. 


The  old  palace  is  located  in  what  is  now  a  Rus- 


TOMB    OF    TAMERLANE,    LOCATED    OX    THE    EDGE    OF    A    GREAT    PARK    IN 
THE   NEW,    OR    RUSSIAN,    CITY    OF   SAMARKAND 


sian  citadel.  It  contained  the  celebrated  Kok- 
Tash,  or  throne  of  Tamerlane,  which  was  situated 
in  what  once  was  the  audience  hall  of  that  king. 
It  is  a  square  block  of  polished  jasper  of  some  ten 


r^-aaj 

1 

I 

risrs^R?^^ 

m 

n^^i 

fel*^■i<^'  ,'; 

' 

. .'    T^^^^^^^^l 

1                  '^^ 

;         ^ 

^5 


f. 


^^ 


THE    SHADMAN-MALIK 


521 


feet  in  length,  and,  like  the  sarcophagus,  is  covered 
with  inscriptions  in  Cufic  letters. 

About  twelve  miles  distant  from  the  cit}'  are  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  bridge,  the  construction  of 


ENTRANXE   TO    THE   TOMIi    OF    TAMERLANE 


which  is  accredited  to  Tamerlane,  called  the  Shad- 
man-Malik.  It  was  thrown  across  the  Zerafshan 
River,  which  here  spreads  over  the  valle}'  in  many 
channels  or  branches.    The  bridge  must,  therefore, 


522 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


have  been  an  immense  structure,  and  built  in  a 
series  of  great  arches.  Onl)-  one  remains  intact, 
although  the  partial  remains  of  many  are  yet 
easily  traceable.  They  were  constructed  of  brick, 
and  I  should  judge  were  nearly  loo  feet  span,  and 


EXTERIOR    OF    TOMB    OF    TAMERLANE,    IN    NEW,    OR   RUSSIAN,    CITY    OF 
SAMARKAND 


of  a  height  of  sixty  to  eighty  feet.  For  some  un- 
accountable reason  the  arches  did  not  extend  in  a 
straight  line,  but  were  all  placed  at  an  angle  to 
each  other,  giving  to  the  long  structure  a  zigzag 
course. 


SCENERY   NEAR    SAMARKAND  525 

We  made  a  pleasant  excursion  into  the  hills  and 
low  range  of  mountains  to  the  northeast  of  the 
city.  While  affording  many  charming  views  and 
much  picturesque  scenery,  this  region  derives  es- 
pecial interest  from  the  fact  that  it  was  here  Alex- 


STREET    SCENE   IN    SAMARKAND 


ander  received  a  dangerous  wound,  and  sustained 
his  first,  and  perhaps  only,  reverse,  at  the  hands  of 
the  fierce  hill  tribes  of  this  locality.  If  history  be 
not  at  fault,  this  was  not  the  only  wound  received 
here  by  this  dauntless  warrior,  for  he  also  fell  a 
victim    to    the    charms    of    the    fair    Roxana,    the 


526 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


daughter  of  a  mountain  chieftain,  whom  he  after- 
wards made  his  queen. 


BURIAL    PLACE    OF   MOHAMMEDAN    SAINTS,    NEAR    THE    GREAT    MOSQUE 
OF    THE    TILLA-KARI,    IX    SAMARKAND 


There  are  many  social  customs  and  peculiarities 
here  that  lend  a  varied  interest  to  the  city.  Polyg- 
amy still   prevails  and  wives  abound,  the  number 


A    MOHAMMEDAN   FAMILY 


529 


that  a  man  takes  unto  himself  being  limited,  as 
in  other  Mohammedan  countries,  by  his  means 
to  support  them.  It  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see 
a  native  cart,  with  its  huge  wheels  and  one  horse, 
passing  slowly  down  the  shady  streets,  the  rider — 


A 

1 

#^ 

1    M 

B    : 

^■^1 

\  •! 

vr— 

,  vJ:%a 

r^ 

^^^ 

^^^^^^B 

-Ml 

MARKET    SfKNE    IX    SAMARKAND 


it  has  no  driver — richly  dressed,  wearing  an  im- 
mense turban,  and  perched  on  the  very  shoulders 
of  the  horse  to  guide  the  vehicle,  on  the  floor  of 
which,  closely  veiled,  can  be  seen  a  number  of 
women,  often  a  half  dozen.  Having  so  frequently 
observed  this  peculiar  outfit,  I  was  moved  to  in- 
34 


530  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

quire  the  real  nature  of  so  strange  an  equipage, 
and  was  informed  that  it  was  the  custom  of 
wealthy  men  thus  to  take  their  wives  out  for  an 
airing. 


XXV 

Natives,  or  Sarts — Seeing  native  life  and  customs — Dinner  at  the 
residence  of  the  Amban  or  native  mayor  of  Samarkand — Our 
host  and  his  guests — Oriental  features  of  the  occasion — Brilliant 
surroundings — The  Russians — The  dances — No  women  as 
dancers — Boy  dancers  dressed  in  the  habits  of  women — Tiie 
music  of  the  Sart — At  first  unpleasant — Wherein  lies  the  charm 
of  Oriental  music — Due  to  rhythm — Influence  hypnotic — Similar 
emotional  state  of  howling  and  dancing  dervishes — The  din- 
ner^ — Various  native  dishes — Kiabab — Cavourna — Pilaf,  etc. — 
Oriental  dancing — Producing  similar  effects  by  rhythm  of  mo- 
tion— Concluding  reflections. 

This  region  is  peopled  by  a  peculiar  race  called 
Sarts  who,  in  many  of  their  traits,  seem  to  be  mid- 
way between  the  Chinese  and  the  Tartar,  being, 
as  it  is  said,  next  to  the  Chinaman,  the  most  skil- 
ful agriculturists  in  the  world.  Having  expressed 
a  desire  to  see  their  domestic  life  in  its  primitive 
and  characteristic  forms,  the  governor  most  oblig- 
ingly instructed  the  Amban,  or  mayor,  of  the  old 
city  to  provide  for  us  a  dinner  and  entertainment 
that  would  reflect  the  chief  habits  and  customs  of 
the  people.  It  was  arranged  to  take  place  at  the 
residence  of  that  official,  who  was  himself  a  native 
of  orreat  wealth  and  influence. 

On  our  arrival   at  the  appointed  hour,  wc  found 


532 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


already  assembled  a  large  number  of  guests,  all 
natives  and  friends  of  our  host,  and,  from  their  ap- 
pearance,   wealthy   and   influential    citizens.      The 


A    MOHAMMEDAN    AND    HIS    WIVES.        sCKNE    IN    THE    J'AKiv    IN     1  HE    NEW, 
OR    RUSSIAN,    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 

residence  was  purely  Oriental  in  design,  construc- 
tion, and  ornamentation,  the  Persian  element 
entering  largely  into  it — a  preference  I  had  often 
before   observed  shown   by  these   people.     It  was 


NATIVE    BANQUET 


533 


two  stories  in  height,  enclosing  an  open  court  of 
perhaps  eighty  feet  square,  entirely  covered  for 
the  occasion  by  large  rugs,  rich  in  brilliant  color- 
ings and   tasteful   patterns.      The   owner,  with  his 


NATIVES,    OR    SARTS,    FATHER    AND    SON 


family,  occupied  the  front  and  two  sides  of  the 
buildin^■,  the  rear  one  beino-  reserved  for  the  do- 
mestics. 

The  dininsj-  table  was  located  on  a  sort  of  wide 


534  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 

veranda  or  dais  running  around  the  interior  of  the 
buildinof  at  some  height  from  the  grround,  from 
which  we  looked  directly  upon  the  court  below;  at 


MEDRESSEH,  OR  NATIVE  COLLEGE,  LOCATED  IN  THE  OLD  CITY  OF 
SAMARKAND.  THERE  ARE  SAID  TO  BE  SOME  TWENTY  COLLEGES  IN 
SAMARKAND 

the  opposite  side  of  the  court  the  musicians,  some 
ten  or  twelve  in  number,  as  is  the  custom  of  the 
country,  sat  squatting  on   the  carpets.      The  table 


GUESTS   AT    BANQUET 


535 


accommodated  about  thirty  guests,  and,  excepting 
two  Russian  soldiers  in  full  military  dress,  detailed 
by  the  government  for  this  function,  there  were  no 


STREET    SCENE   IN   THE    OLD    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND,    LEADING    FROM    THE 
PUBLIC    SQUARE    TO    THE    GREAT    MOSQUE    OF   TAMERLANE 


foreiofners  other  than  ourselves.  There  were  no 
women  present,  as  they  are,  in  fact,  rarely  seen  on 
any  public  occasion. 

In  addition  to  the  musicians,  there  was  provided 


536 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


for  our  entertainment  a  full  corps  of  professional 
dancers,  composed  of  youths  from  fifteen  to  eigh- 
teen years  of  age,  and  dressed  as  girls — no  women, 


IN    THE     OLD     CITY    OF     SAMARKAND.         STREET    LEADING     TO    THE    GREAT 
MOSQUE    OF    THE    SHAH-ZINDAH.       NATIVE    SARTS  IN  THE  FOREGROUND 


as  is  the  custom  throughout  the  East,  being  per- 
mitted to  publicly  appear  in  any  kind  of  theatrical 
representation.  The  instruments  were  the  usual  flat 
drum,  a  sort  of  clarionet,  and  cymbals.  Immediately 
after  the  beeinnine  of  the  dinner,  the  music  com- 


ORIENTAL    AIUSIC 


537 


menced,  and  continued,  with  only  short  intervals, 
during  the  entire  repast.  The  highly-pitched 
voices  of  the  singers,  mingled  with  what  at  first 
seemed    the    discordant    din   of    the    instruments, 


STREET    SCENE    IN    THE    RUSSIAN,    OR    NEW,    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


produced  anything  but  a  pleasant  effect.  Such 
is  the  inscrutable  law  of  adjustment,  however, 
that  after  being  under  its  intluence  for  several 
hours,  not  only  did  it  cease  to  be   unpleasant,  but 


538 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


I  even   began  to  discover  elements  of  beauty  and 
pleasure  in  it. 

I  wish  I  were  sufficiently  versed  in  music  to 
make  an  effort  to  determine  wherein  lies  the 
charm  of  the  music  of  the  East,  since  it  certainly 


RUINS  OF  THE  MOSQUE  OF  THE  SHAH-ZINDAH,  IN  THE  OLD  CITY  OF 
SAMARKAND.  SAID  TO  HAVE  BEEN  ONE  OF  THE  GRANDEST  IN  THE 
MOSLEM    WORLD 


has  a  decided  charm  for  the  Oriental  ear,  as  they 
always  listen  to  it  in  a  dreamy  silence.  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  it  is  due  to  its  rhythm,  pro- 
ducing a  sort  of  hypnotic  spell  upon  the  hearer. 
To  the  influence  of  rhythm  is  evidently  due  that 


ORIENTAL    DANCING 


539 


strange  entrancement  displayed  by  the  dancing- 
and  howling  dervishes  of  the  East,  and  the  some- 
what similar  mental  and  emotional  state  shown 
by  the  negro  in  America  on  certain  occasions  of 
high  religious  excitement. 


ENTRANCE   TJIROUGH    THE    ENCLOSING    WALL   THAT  SURROUNDS    THE  TUMI'. 
OF   TAMERLANE,    EN    THE   CUIY    OF    SAMARKAND 


The  strange  effect  of  adjustment  was  exempli- 
fied by  a  circumstance  that  occurred  while  on  a 
visit  to  Japan  some  years  ago.  I  fell  in  with  a 
highly  intelligent  Japanese  gentleman,  who  had 
returned  a  few  months  before  from  Eni^-land,  where 


540 


SIBERIA   AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 


he  had  spent  fifteen  years,  and  had  graduated  at 
one  of  its  leading  universities.  He  had  been 
sufficiently  long  in  the  West  to  become  familiar 
with  its  customs,  and  had,  as  he  said,  acquired 
some  fondness  for  its  music.      I  asked  him  which 


VIEW    IN    THE    PARK    IN    THE    OLD    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


he  preferred,  when  he  freely  admitted  that  he 
liked  best  the  simple  music  of  his  own  country, 
which  to  me  was  almost  painful. 

The  viands  served  by  our  host  were  entirely 
those  of  the  natives.  The  first  dish  was  called 
Kiabab,  made  of  minced  meat,  previously  cooked 


ORIENTAL    DINNER 


543 


and  deliciously  Havored,  wrapped  in  successive 
layers  of  a  thin  sheet  of  dough,  forming  small 
rolls,  and  dropped  into  some  sort  of  hot  fat  and 
browned.     The  second  dish  was  called  Cavourna, 


NATIVE    MUSICIANS    IN    THE    OLD    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


and  was  a  kind  of  meat  stew,  made  of  mutton  and 
various   vegetables,   such  as  tomatoes,   etc. 

The  great  dish,  however,  X[\^  piece  de  resistance, 
was  Pilaf,  which,  like  the  curry  of  India,  is  the 
main  article  of  diet  in  the  Central  East.  It  is 
made  by  mixing  choice  bits  of  fried  mutton  with 
boiled  rice,  to  which  is  added  something  like  curry. 


544 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


It  constitutes  a  palatable  and  withal  a  most  di- 
ofestible  and  wholesome  dish.  The  last  course 
was  fruits,  the  variety  and  excellence  of  which  I 
will  not  attempt  to  describe.  Although  wines  of 
many   choice  varieties,   produced   by   the   resident 


DANCERS    AT    KAXQUET    IN    THE    OLD    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


Russians,  were  liberally  served,  I  noticed  that  not 
one  of  the  quests — all  beino-  Mohammedans — 
touched  it,  not  even  to  respond  to  a  toast. 

The  dancing  was  of  a  variety  so  universally  in 


CHARM    PRODUCED    BY    RHYTHM        545 

vogue  throughout  Oriental  countries.  It  is  in  its 
nature  essentially  allied  to  their  music,  a  like 
effect  being  produced  in  both  instances  by  the 
same  primary  cause — rhythm — acting  in  the  one 
case  through  the  ear,  in  the  other  through  the  eye. 


SHADMAN-MALIK,    OR    liRIDCE   OF     TAMERLANE,    OVER    THE    ZERAI-'SHAN 
RIVER,    TWENTY    MILES    EROM    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


What  is  accomplished  by  the  almost  monotonous 
repetition  of  rhythmic  sounds,  is  done  quite  as 
effectively  by  the  continuous  repetition  of  gentle 
and  graceful  movements  of  the  limbs  and  the 
body.  The  combined  effect,  therefore,  of  their 
music  and  dancing  is  to  lull  those  who  are  accus- 
35 


546 


SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL    ASIA 


tomed  to  it  into  a  drowsy,  dreamy  mood.  Occa- 
sionally a  dancer  would  suddenly  break  away  from 
the  rest  and,  in  rapid  gyrations  and  dizzy  whirls, 
spin  around  in  a  great  circle,  his   long,  loose  hair 


MARKET    SCENE   IN    THE    OLD    CITY    OF    SAMARKAND 


and  flowing  robe  in  the  meanwhile  circling  in  the 
air  with  curious  effect. 

At  different  intervals  a  magician,  juggler,  or 
acrobat  was  called  in  to  lend  additional  interest  to 
the  entertainment.  So  absorbed  was  I  in  all  that 
was  occurring  that  I  took  no  note  of  time,  and  on 
suddenly  discovering  that  more  than  three  hours 


REFLECTIONS 


547 


had  been  consumed,  I  at  once  signified  to  my 
host  that  I  must  depart.  Amid  many  profound 
salaams,  and  a  profusion  of  good  wishes  for  our 
welfare  and  safety,  we  took  our  departure  from 
scenes  and  experiences  that  I  shall  alwa)s  remem- 
ber as  the  most  weird  and  interesting  of  my  life. 


STREET    SCENE    IN    THE    NEW    TOWN    OF    SAMARKAND 


While  returning,  I  pondered  much  on  the  in- 
scrutable causes  that  operate  to  create  nations,  and 
to  control  their  destinies.  How  strange  it  seemed 
that,  by  the  influence  of  what  appear  to  be  the 
same  causes  and  similar  natural  laws  in  different 
regions    of  the  globe,  there  are  created    races  so 


548  SIBERIA    AND    CENTRAL   ASIA 

widely  divergent  in  customs,  habits,  and  modes 
of  thought,  and  even  in  physical  characteristics. 
More  wonderful  still  is  it,  that  a  sudden  and  vio- 
lent chanofe  from  the  fixed  conditions  of  one 
nation  to  those  of  another  is  often  followed  by 
national  and  even  racial  death. 

Perhaps  we  may  find  a  partial  solution  of  these 
mysteries  In  the  fact  that  what  we  are  accustomed 
superficially  to  regard  as  Identical  or  similar  con- 
ditions may,  upon  a  closer  analysis,  prove  to  be 
widely  different  in  essential  particulars;  and,  there- 
fore, whatever  peculiar  traits  a  nation  may  dis- 
play will  be  found  to  be  only  the  natural  and 
necessary  outgrowth  of  the  special  conditions 
under  which   it  evolved. 

These  reflections  would  seem  to  harmonize  with 
what  a  great  philosopher  has  declared  to  be  the 
general  law  of  life — "  the  adjustment  of  Internal  to 
external  relations."  They  also  tend  to  carry  us 
closer  toward  the  Inquiry,  whether  our  thoughts, 
customs,  tastes,  and  even  our  physical  being  may 
not  be  merely  the  continuous  product  of  the  en- 
vironing conditions  in  which,  and  by  which,  we 
exist. 

THE    END. 


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